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-7f

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY BULLETIN No. 71.

L. O. HOWARD. Kntomologisl and Chief of Bureau.

Tin-:

PERIODICAL CICADA

BY

C. L. MARLATT, M. S.,

EntomoIogiHt. and Adlng ChU-f in AI>.<ience of Chief.

l6.suEr) Jri.Y 18, U'O';

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTIN(; OFFICE,
1 9 U 7 .

B UEEA U OF ENTOMOLOG Y.

L. O. HoAVARD, EntoinoIoyisL and Chief of Bureau.

C. L. Marlatt, Entomologist and Acting Chief in absence of Chief .

R. S. Clifton, Chief Cleric.

F. H. Chittenden, in charge of breeding eiyeriments.

A. D. Hopkins, in charge of forest iiisect investigations.

W. D. Hunter, in charge of cotton boll ivcevil investigations.

F. M. Webster, in charge of cereal and forage-plant insect investigations.

A. L. Quaintance, in charge of deciduous-fruit insect investigations.

E. F. Phillips, in charge of apiculture.

D. M. Rogers, in charge of gipsy and brou:n-tail moth uorh.
A. W. Morrill, engaged in ichite fly investigations.

E. S. G. Titus, in charge of gipsy moth laboratory.
C. J. Gilliss, engaged in silk investigations.

R. P. Currie, assistant in charge of editorial work.
Mabel Colcord, librarian.

' Agriculture.

pRONTiSO'

C. V. Riley, del L. Sullivan p\n%..

Transformation of Periodical Cicada (Tibicen Septendecim).

U.S. Dl'JMRTMENT OI^^ ACiRlCULIURE,
BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY— BULLETIN No. 71.

L. O. HOWARD. Entomologist and Chief of Bureau.

THE

PEEIODICAL CICADA.

BY

C. L. MARLATT, M. S.,

Eiiloinuhi/lst <(ii<l AdiiKj Chief in Absence of Chief.

Issued July 18, 1907.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,

j;rri-:K oi- rRANSMiTTAi

U. S. l)i:rAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Bureau of Entomology,
^yashington, D. C, April 16, 1907.

Sir: Tlio su])ject of tho 2)eriodical or 17-year Cicada has been
treated in two publications of this Bureau, namely. Bulletin No 8
(old series), published in 1885, and Bulletin No. 14 (new series),
])iiblisiied in 1898. Both of these publications are now out of print,
and the accunudation of a large amount of new records of distribu-
tion and the increase of information on the habits of this insect call
for a new j)u])lication. Mr. C. L. Marlatt, who was the author of
Bulletin Xo. 14, has thoroughly revised that publication, incorpo-
rating all new records and information, and the manuscript is sub-
mitted for publication as Bulletin No. 71 of this Bureau.

In this publication the new numbering of the broods suggested by
Mr. ^larlatt in Bulletin No. 18 (new series), of this Bureau, is fol-
lowed, so that now the designation of the broods indicates directly
their relationship to each other in time and distribution.

The writings on this species are voluminous, and the bibliograj^hy
])ul)lished in Bulletin No. 14 has been extended to include the
important additions to the literature which have appeared since 1898.

A good deal of tlie matter from Bulletin No. 14 has been used with-
out change, but the brood records have been thoroughly revised and a
distribution maj) has been made for each of the known broods. Some
new ])h()tographs have been introduced to illustrate particular fea-
tures of th(> life history of the Cicada.

The periodical Cicada covers in its range nearly all of the United
vStates from the Mississi])j)i Valley eastward, and has a very consid-
(M'al)l(' ecoiioiiiic importance. The curious features of its regular
])eriodi(' aj)])earances and its long subterranean life give it pcM'haps
the greatest ])()pular interest whicli attaches to any insect what(^ver,
and hnid to many in([uiries with every recurrence of an important
brood.

3

4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Tlio ])rosent year will witness the recurrenee in the Southern States
of the lar^cest of the lo-year broods of this insert, and the prompt
])ul)li('ation of this Bulletin is therefore advised to meet in(|uiries
for information and to assist in the eolleetion of aeeurate records of
this and su])se((uent broods.
Respectfully,

L. O. Howard,

Entomologist and Chief of Bureau.
lion. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

C()XT1-;\'TS.

Pago.

Suininnry of tho habits and cliaractoristics of tlic ( icada 11

The races, broods, and varieties of tlie ('ica(hi II

A 1 7-year race and a 1 3-year race II

Relation of climate to the races IS

The dwarf periodical Cicada , 20

The broods of the periodical Cicada 22

The oriu:in of the broods 22

The classification of the broods 25

The relationship of the different broods 28

Tne relationship of the 17-year broods 29

The relationship of the 1 3-year broods 30

Sources of error in the old records 30

Broods of 14, 15, or 16 year periods 33

Future appearances 34

The distribution of the periodical Cicada 34

Sources of information 34

The general range of the species and of the two races 35

The range of the well-established broods, taken in numerical order 38

Broods of the 17-year race 38

Brood l—Septendedm—ldlO 38

Brood II — Septendedm — 1911 39

Brood lll—Scptendecim—l^V2 41

l^rood lY—SepUndcdm—l^n 42

Brood Y—Septendecim—IS)\A .,. . 43

Brood VI — Septendedm. — 191 5 44

Brood YU—Seplende.dm,—\^\Q> ' 40

Brood VIII — Septendedm — 1917 47

Brood IX— Septendedm— m?> 49

Brood X— Septendedm— \S)\S) 50

Brood Xl—Septendeeim.—WlO 54

Brood Xll— Septendedm— im\ 55

Brood Xlll— Septendedm— W22 57

Brood XIN— Septendedm— IS)2?> 58

Brood XY— Septendedm— 1^01 00

Brood X\l— Septendedm— Am?> 02

Brood XWl—Septcndecwi—nm 03

Brofxls of the 1 3-year race 05

Brood XVIII— Trcrfcciwi— 1919. 05

Brood XIX— Tm/mwi— 1907 00

Brood XX— Trf^m— 1908 , 08

Brood XXl—Trededm—nm 08

Brood XXll—Trededm—l^\0 09

6

b CONTEXTS.

The (listrihution of the periodical Cicada — Continued. Page
Thi'tanji^f of the \s'ell-established broods, taken in numerical order — Cont'd.
Broods of the 13-year race — Continued.

Brood XXlII—Tredecim—ldU 71

Brood XXIY—Tredecim— 1912 7:)

Brood XXY— Trededm— 1913 74

Brood XXVI— Tredeam— 1914 74

Brood XXVIl—Tredecim— 191b 75

Brood XXVUI—Tredecim—1916 75

Brood XXIX— Tredecim— 1917 75

Brood XXX— Tredecim— 191S 7(;

Systematic position and structural details 77

The mouth parts, or beak 79

The ovipositor 81

The musical apparatus 82

The song notes of the periodical Cicada 84

The so-called sting of the Cicada 86

Transformation to the adult stage 88

Period of emergence 88

Duration of the adult stage 90

Method of emergence 91

Cicada huts, or cones 91

The act of transformation 98

The adult insect and its habits _. 99

Numbers and local distribution 99

The food habits of the adult insect ] 01

The Cicada as an article of food 102

Oviposition and its effect on the plant 104

Plants selected 105

Result to the plant of oviposition 1 06

Method of inserting the eggs 109

The gi-owth and hatching of the eggs MO

The underground life of the Cicada 112

Experimental proofs of the long underground Yiic 112

A successful 17-year breeding record 1 114

History of the larval and pupal stages 116

Technical description of the different stages 118

First larval stage 1 1<S

Second larval stage 110

Third larval stage 119

Fourth larval stage 1 20

First pupal stage 121

Second pupal stage 121

The habits of the larva and pupa 122

The food of the larva and pupa 1 22

The location in the soil 12-1

The method of burrowing 1 25

Damage occasioned by larva? and pupa? 126

The natural enemies of the Cicada - 1 27

Insect parasites 129

Dipterous enemies 129

Hemipterous enemies 130

CONTENTS. 7

The luitunil cnt'iuics o\ ilic Cicada ( "oiil imicd. I'ngc.
Insect parasites ('out imieil.

ll\ineli()plei-()iis enemies \M)

The parasites of (lie e,u;i,'s i;^()

'I'lie larijer diij^er wasp 132

Mite parasites of the egjjs |;i')

Tlie ()ril>ati(l miles |;i(i

Miscellaneous predaceous mites l.'id

The \ eriel)rate enemies |;;s

The fungous disease ol" the adults \:v.)

Remedies and preventives I 10

The general character of the })rol)lem 110

Means of destroying the emerged i)up;e and adidts 1 11

Collection of adults Ill

Destruction with insecticides 112

Applications to prevent oviposition 1-4,3

Precautionary measures Ill

Means against the Cicada in its underground life 115

The periodical Cicada in literature 146

Bibliography of the periodical Cicada 1 54

Appendix. Dr. Gideon B. Smith's chronology of the periodical Cicada 170

Index 175

ILI.ISTKATIOXS

PLATKS.

Til"' transl'orr.uuion of [\\v periodical Ciciula ( 'rihicoi scplrndrri))!) I'^ront ispicro.

I'l.A ri: I . Work of tlic ])(M"io(lical Cicada 12

II. Fhotoiirajih of chambers of the periodical Cicada, geiieral \iew.

taken at New Baltimore, N. Y., May, 1894 02

III. Photograph of chambers of the periodical Cicada in woodshed.

Washington, D. C, 1902 <M

IV. Chambers of the periodical Cicada, natural size, in woodslicd,

Washington, D. C, 1902 9(i

V. Empty pupal shells of the periodical Cicada clinging lo leaves,

Brood X. 1902, Washington, D. C 98

VI. The Iransformalion of the emerged periodical Cicada 100

TEXT FIGURES.

Fir,. ]. The periodical Cicada, representing the typical form and dwarf form. . 21

2. Map showing distribution of the broods of the 13-year race .3G

3. Map showing distribution of the broods of the 17-year i-ace 37

1. Map showing distribution of Brood I, 1910 39

5. ^^ap showing distribution of Brood II, 1911 40

0. Map showing distribution of Brood III, 1912 41

7. Map showing distribution of Brood IV, 1913 42

8. Map showing distribution of Brood V, 1914 44

9. Map showing distribut ion of Brood VI, 1915 45

10. :Map showing distribution of Brood VII, 1910 47

11 . Map showing distribution of Brood VIII, 1917 18

12. >rap showing distribution of Brood IX, 1918 -19

13. Map showing distribution of Brood X, 1919 51

14. Map showing distribution of Brood XI, 1920 54

15. Map showing distribution of Brood XII, 1921 5(1

10. Map showing distribution of Brood XIII, 1922 57

17. Map showing distril)uticm of Brood XIV, 1923 59

18. Map shf)wing distribution of Brood XV, 1907 01

19. Map showing distribution of Brood XVI, 1908 02

20. Map shoAving distribution of Brood XVII, 1909 03

21. Map showing distrilnition of Brood XVIII, 1919 05

22. Map showing distribution of Brood XIX, 1907 00

23. Map showing distribution of Brood XX, 1908 OS

24. Map showing distribution of Brood XXI, 1909 09

25. Map showing distribution of Brood XXII, 1910 70

20. Map showing distribul ion r.fBror.d XXIII. 1911 71

9

10 ILLUSTRATIONS.

, Haee.

Fig. 27. Map showing distribution of Brood XXIV, 1912 73

28. Map showing distribution of Brood XXVI, 1914 75

29. Map sliow'ng distribution of Brood XXIX, 1917 70

:'.0. Map sh(*wing distribution of Brood XXX, 1918 77

;U. Head and prothorax of Cicada, lateral view 7N

82. Head of ("icada, front view, right mandible and maxilla drawn out.. 79
8;i. Head and prothorax of Cicada, lateral view, with parts separated lo

show structure 80

34. The periodical Cicada, side view, showing beak and ovipositor 81

35. Abdomen of female, showing ovipositor and attachments 81

36. Tip of ovipositor, much enlarged 81

37. Cross section of ovipositor 82

38. The musical apparatus of the periodical Cicada 83

39. Pupal galleries of the Cicada 92

40. Exit holes in soil 100

41. Twigs showing egg punctures and illustrating manner of breaking .. . 100

42. Twig showing scars from punctures after the second year 106

43. Cicada scars in hard-maple twigs after seventeen years 108

44. The egg nest of the Cicada, showing nature of wound and arrangement

of eggs 109

45. Egg, much enlarged, showing young about to be disclosed Ill

46. Newly hatched larva, greatly enlarged 112

47. First larval stage, illustrating the larva at the beginning and end of

this stage 118

48. Second larval stage, illustrating the structure of the anterior leg 119

49. Third larval stage, illustrating the structure of the anterior leg 120

50. Fourth larval stage, illustrating larva and structure of anterior leg 120

51. First pupal stage, illustrating the structure of the anterior leg 121

52. Cecidomyiid egg parasite of the Cicada 129

53. Egg parasite, Lathromeris cicadf- 130

54. Female Sphecius (digger wasp) carrying a Cicada to her burrow 130

55. Diagram of the burrows of the digger wasp 131

56. Cicada tibicen with wasp egg attached to thorax 131

57. Full-grown larva of the digger wasp in its burrow feeding on a Cicada. . . 132

58. Larva of digger wasp with anatomical details: pupa of same, front and

lateral views 132

59. Digger wasp larva constructing its cocoon 133

60. Cocoon of digger wasp, with enlarged section of breathing pore 134

61. Mite egg parasite, Oribatella sp 134

62. Mite egg parasite, Oripoda elongata 134

63. Mite egg parasite, Oppia pilosa 135

64. Mite egg parasite, Pediculoides rentricosKS 136

65. Mite egg parasit':^, Tyroglyphus cocciphilus 136

66. Mite egg parasite, Iphis ovaiis 137

67. Mite egg parasite, Cheylelus sp 137

()8. ^lite egg parasite, Bdella sp ■ 138

/

rn

THE PERIODTCAL CICADA

SUMMARY OF THE HABITS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

CICADA.

T]\o jxM-iodical Cicada, often orroneously called the " 17-yeai'
locust," or merely tlie "locust" — a term which should apply only
to i2:rassho})})ers " — is, in the curious features of its life history,
und()ul)tedly the most anomalous and interesting of all the insects
peculiar to the American Continent. This Cicada is especially
remarka])le in its adolescent period, the features of particular diver-
gence from other insects being its long subterranean life of 13 or 17
years, during all of which time its existence is unsuspected and
unindicated by any superficial sign, and the perfect regularity with
which at the end of these periods every generation, though numbering
millions of individuals, attains maturity at almost the same moment.
To the naturalist, familiar in a general way with the peculiar habits
of this Cicada, its regular periodic recurrence always arouses the
keenest interest on account of the anomalous life problems presented.
To those unfamiliar wdth its habits, these sudden recurrences not
only startle but often excite the gravest fears for the safety of trees
and shrubs or even of annual plants.

In view of the damage often occasioned by unusual insect out-
breaks, such fears are not unreasonable, when, without w^arning, this
Cicada suddenly emerges over greater or smaller areas, filling the
ground from which it issues with innumerable exit holes, swarming
over trees and shrubs, and making the air vibrate with its shrill,
discordant notes. During its short aerial life it leaves very decided
marks of its presence in the egg slits which thickly fill all the smaller
twigs and branches, the killing or injury of which causes some tem-
porary harm and a sort of general twig pruning not especially inju-
rious to forest trees, but more so to fruit trees, and very undesirable
and disastrous to young trees and nursery stock. (See PI. I.)

o The confusion of the Cicada with the true locust or grasshopper was a natural one
and appeared in the earliest published notice of the Cicada (1GG6), and the name locust
has ever since remained the popular designation of this insect. The sudden appear-
ance of the Cicada in vast numbers very naturally recalled to the first observers the
hordes of migratory locusts or grasshoppers of the Old World, as Say and Fitch early
pointed out.

11

12 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Following briefly the history of the insect, the youno^ ant-liko larya.
hatchintr from the e^rg a fe^v weeks after the latter has been laid,
escapes from the wounded limb, falls lightly to the gromid, and
quickly burrows out of sight, forming for itself a little subterranean
chamber or cell over some rootlet, where it remains through winter
and summer, buried from light, air, and sun and protected in a manner
from cold and frost. It liyes in absolute solitude, separated from its
fellows, in its moist earthen chamber, rarely changing its position
save as some accident to the nourishing rootlet may necessitate its
seeking another. In this manner it passes the seventeen or thirteen
5'ears of its hypogeal existence in a dark cell in slow growth and
preparation for a few weeks only of the society of its fellows and the
enjoyment of the warmth and brightness of the sun and the fragrant
air of early summer. During this brief period of aerial life it attends
actively to the needs of continuing its species, is sluggish in move-
ment, rarely taking wing, and seldom takes food. For four or five
weeks the male sings his song of love and courtship, and the female
busies herself for a little longer period, perhaps, with the placing of
the eggs which are to produce the subsequent generation thirteen or
seventeen years later. At the close of its short adult existence the
Cicada falls to the ground again, perhaps within a few feet of the
point from which it issued, to be there dismembered and scattered
about, carpeting the surface of the ground with its wings and the
fragments of its body. Such in brief is the life round of tliis
anomalous insect.

So far as is known, other cicadas appear every year, usually in
comparatively small numbers, and this yearly recurrence has led to
the belief that the larval existence of these species is nuich shorter,
if not limited to a single 3^ear. In the absence of direct experimental
proof, however, it may be true that all cicadas have a long larval
existence, and the absence of well-marked broods in other species
or the complete breaking up or scattering of these broods, so that
individuals emerge practically every 3^ear, have erroneousl}^ been
taken to indicate a much shorter term of underground life."

If w^e can not satisfactorily explain the reason for the long larval
life of the periodical Cicada or the conditions which led to the origin

a The writer recalls that in the summer of 1885 a very large species of Cicada (C.
margniala Say) appeared in considerable numbers among the scrubby white oaks bor-
dering a stream near Manhattan, Kans., and filled the air with its very loud and dis-
cordant vil)rations; yet, although familiar with and a frequent visitor of these woods
in earlier and later years, no other experience with this particular species was liad.
It may be, therefore, that this species, which is more than twice the size of the period-
ical Cicada, has an even longer life period.

There are other western or Rocky Mountain species wliich give evidence of
paralleling very closely in periodicity and number the eastern periodical (Jicada.
(^See p. 36.)

Bui. 7 1 , Bureau of Entomology, H. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

SUMMARY OF IIAIUTS AXD (MI A R ACTKIMSriCS. \ '.]

of tliis |)(M'iiliarit y, assiiinini:; it to \)o ahiioi-nial, we can at l(»as( sec
certain advantau^cs coniiiiii; to the species therelVoin. Anionir tlicsc
are tlie j)roteetion from attacks of parasitic enemies. >incc w c can
hardly concei\(^ of a |)arasite limited to this Cicada which could pos-
sihly extcMid its c>\istence ovei" an e(pial t(M'm of years. lis occui'-
renc(\ also, in overwhelming:; nnnd)ers at almost the same moment
everywhere" within \\\c ranii;e of llic hrood picviMits its heinii; \ ci'V
often seriously cliecked in its achdt slag-e hy th(> attacks of hirds
and oth(»r vertebrate enemies, whieli fatten on it in enormous num-
hcM's. For tliis si)eeies this is a most impoi'tant consi(l(M-at ion. foi- ii is
iiatui-ally shii::,i2:i>^h and lielpk^ss and seems to hick ahnost complcicly
the instinct of fear common to most other insects, and this lca\c> it
an easy prey to insectivorous animals. The ahnost (Mitin^ al)scnc(> of
fear and consecjuent effort to save itself from danger by lli^rht or
concealment is apparently a consequence of the long intervals between
its aerial appearances.

The ii^reatest check on the species has been in the advent of Euro-
peans on this ccnitinent and the accompanying clearing of woodlands
and increase of settlement. The vast areas in the more densely popu-
lated East, wliicli were once thickly inhabited by one or the other of
the broods of the periodical Cicada, are rapidly losing this character-
istic, and the Cicada w ill doubtless appear in fewer and fewer numbers
in all settled districts. A recent important factor wliich is assisting
in this ])articiilar is the English sparrow, and it has been shown by
Professor liiley and later observers that in and about cities nearly all
of the few^ cicadas which still emerge under these more or less unfavor-
able conditions are devoured by this voracious bird. On the other
hand, as stated (p. 58), the first brood of these insects to be noted
by the early New England colonists, namely, the swarm recorded for
Plymouth for 1634, was just as abundant in 1906, the year when it
last recurred, as ever. This is, however, not the normal condition.
the wooded areas having been considerably maintained in Plymouth
and Barnstable counties, wdiereas ordinarily such wooded areas have
been greatly reduced or obliterated, and the Cicada in consecpKMicc
slowly exterminated.

The rapid disappearance of the Cicada, as a result of the clearinir of
forest areas and the conditicMis which accompany settlement, is nota-
bly shown in the case of Brood XI, wdiicli formerly occupied a comj)a(t
territory in the valley of the Connecticut River in the States of Massa-
chusetts and Connecticut. In a letter to th(* writei-. Mr. rieori^c
Dimmock, who has made a special study oi this brood in i he northern
part of the town of vSuf field, Conn., says: "When I saw them in 1S(H)
the cicadas were so abundant tliat small 1)iishes and undei-growth in
the rather sparse woods in wliich they occurred were weighted down
with them." In 1886 he was unable to visit the region, but was

14 THE PKHIODICAL CICADA.

iiii\)riiiod that very few ul" the insects appeared that year. In
exphination of this he writes: ''The woodland in the A'icinity has
been steadily reduced and the cicadas, of which there are records
going back about a centur}^, seem to be djdng out. The owner of the
land where the cicadas appeared (a man born in 1815, died in 1892)
informed me that the rate of reduction was so rapid tliat he d()u])te(l
if any of them would appear in 1903."

To the lover of nature there is something regrettable in tliis slow
extermination of an insect which presents, as does the periodical
Cicada, so much that is interesting and anomalous in its ha])its and
life liistory. During the long periods of past time the s])ecies has
recurred with absolute regularity except as influenced b}^ notable
changes in the natural topograpliical conditions and the despoliation
of forests which has followed the path of settlement b}^ the white man.
It is interesting, therefore, in thought to trace the liistory of this
species backward, taking, as time measures, its periodic recurrences,
until in retrospect it is possible to fancy its shrill notes jarring on the
ears of the early colonists or listened to in the woodlands bordering
the ocean by the still earlier discoverers and explorers. Still more
remote]*^ one can picture its song causing wonderment to the savage
Indians who attributed to it baleful influences, and 3^et) less dainty
than their white followers^' usecl the soft, newly emerged cicadas as
food; or further back in time, when it had only wild animals as
auditors. With these long-time measures our brief periods of days,
weeks, months, and 3^ears seem trivial enough.

THE RACES, BROODS, AND VARIETIES OF THE CICADA.

Much obscurity must always attach to the past liistor}' of tliis insect
and the origin of its peculiar habits, and notably the causes and con-
ditions which have led to the establislunent of the long underground
existence and the equally extraordinar}" regularitj' in time of emer-
gence at the end of this period. Explanations may, however, be sug-
gested for some of its peculiarities as presented in its life at the j^resent
time — as, for example, the origin of the two distinct races, one with a
17-year period and the other with a 13-year period, with ])ot]i of
wliich a small variety occurs, and the existence of a multitude of (hs-
tinct broods occujn'ing the same or different territory and appearing
in different years but with absolute regularity of ])eriods.

A SEVENTEEN-YEAR RACE AND A THIRTEEN-YEAR RACE.

One of tlie greatest difficulties in solving tlie pro])lem of the broods
of this insect and tlieir geographical limits was removed by the dis-
covery of the existence of two (Hstinct races — namely, one requiring
seventeen years for its development and limited geograpliically, in a

A SEVENTEEN-YKAK KACK AND A Till in'KKN- V KA K HACK. I ,)

general way, t(> tlio nortluMii hall' of tlic i;m^^(> of t he species, and
the other r(M(nirini:; hut thirteen yeais for it s (le\ (•lo|)nient and eoN'er-
int^: the soutluM'n hah' o( the rani^e of the s|)ecies.

This interest in*z; and \-er\ important fact was first (hsco\ (mc(|, it
seems, by Dr. 1). L. Phar(^s, then of AVoodville, Miss., who announced
the 13-year pcM'iod foi- th(> southern hroods in a local paper I he
WoodvilK^ (Miss.") ixepuhlican, May 17. ISI"). As this j)aj)er had onl\-
a local circulation tla^ si(rni(icance of this disco\-ery was lost si<j^ht of
and probably n(»A'(M- came to the attention of naturalists: and it was
not until 1S()S, when Dr. B. 1). Walsh and Prof. (\ ^'. Kiley ariived at
the sanu* couehision and published, in a joint article in the Ameri-
can P^ntonioloti^ist," a mass of acciunuhited observations beaiiniz;
thereon, that the 13-year period f^)r the soutliern broods cam(> to be
generally aeeepted.

In Professor Riley's first report on the insects of Missouri, pub-
Hshed the followinii^ year (1869), the joint article just referred to was
reproduced substantially without change, except for a revision of the
classificatic>n ot the broods, based on data obtained chiefly from a very
valuable unpublished monograph entitled '^ The American locust,"
etc., by Dr. Gideon B. Smith, of Baltimore, Md.

This manuscript paper, on the authority of Professor Riley, was
communicated to him by Dr. J. G. Morris, of Baltimore, some four
months after the publication of the existence of the 13-year race by
Walsh and Riley, but in time for use in the preparation of the article
for the First Missouri Report. In it the existence of the 13-year
Southern race, occurring in several broods, is fully recorded by Doc-
tor Smith in connection wdth the use of the specific name '^tredecim."
(See Appendix.)

After the existence of the 13-year Southern race was again brought
into prominence by Walsh and Riley, Doctor Phares ])ublished an
article in the Southern Field and Factory, Jackson, Miss., April, 1873,
in which he called attention to his earlier publication, cited above,
where he seems to have controverted the belief that there is no 13-
year brood, evidently entertained up to that time by Doctor vSmith,
with whom Doctor Phares was in correspondence, and also to an
article published May 5, 1858, in the Repul)lican, where he iis(m1 the
title "Cicada tredecim." Doctor Smith later evidently accepted the
conclusions of Doctor Phares and introduced them in his last revi-
sion of his mamiscript memoir, which Pr()fess(U' Riley saw and used.
To Doctor Phares, therefore, belongs the honor of having made the
discovery of the 13-year period for the Southern broods. Xevert he-
less, but for the independent work of Walsh and Kiley, the knowl-
edge of the 13-year broods might have been long lacking, and, in the

a Vol. I, pp. 63-72. Dpcpmhor, 1868.

10 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

nonp'ihlicalioii of Doctor Siuilli's jiionotrrapli," those broods would
have failed ot the a})iin(hint j)rool on which theynowrest. The race
name of tredeciin for the 13-year broods was sutrt^ested by Walsh and
Iviley without knowledge of its earlier use by Doctor Phares. The
hitter's early articles in the Republican are lost altogether, the author
himself not being able to recover them in later years, and the credit
for the name tredecim for the 13-year race, following the customary
rules, should go to Walsh and Riley.

The discover}^ of the 13-year Southern race was of vast assistance
in clearing up the confusion which had attended the study of the
different ])roo(ls of this insect and enabled Walsh and Riley to sepa-
rate some sixteen distinct broods, three of which belong to the tre-
decim race, and later enabled Prorcssor Riley, with the aid of Doctor
Smith's paper, to increase the number of tredecim broods to seven
and the total of the broods to twent3^-two, twenty-one of which the
records of subsecjuent appearances have proved to be valid.

Doctor Smith's remarks in his manuscript chapter on geographical
tribes and districts present the status of the 17-year and 13-year
races very clearly. He sa3^s:

There are two divisions or tribes, differing from each other only in the periods of
their lives; the one and much the larger division living 17 years, and the other
13; hence the impropriety of the specific name se/)^enriecm. * * * The anatomy
of the insects of both divisions is precisely the same, but septendedm does not of
course apply to the Southern division, whose lives are but 13 years. Shall we call
the latter Cicada tredecim? Why there is this difference in the periods of lives of the
two tribes we can not explain. It is not the climate that causes it, as a moment's
reflection will prove. If that were the cause the difference would be more gradual.
For example, in northern New York they would have been, say, 17 years; in Pennsyl-
vania, 16; in Maryland and Virginia, 15; in North Carolina and Tennessee, 14, and
in South Carolina, etc., 13 years in completing their existence. But that is hot the
case. The difference of years takes place abruptly on and about the line of 34°
and 35° of north latitude, on the north side of which the period is 17 years and on
the south 13 years.

While Doctor Smith is hardl}^ justified in the last statement, it is
nevertheless true that the 17-year race is northern and the 13-year
race is southern. The territory of the two races is graj^hically shown
m figures 2 and 3, and is described in detail and mapped for all the
broods in a later section.

In this bidletin the two forms of the periocHcal Cicada have ])een
designated as ''races," adopting the position taken by Professor Riley
and the majority of the writers on this insect, rather than consider-
ing tluMu to be (Hstinct species, as is held by some specialists. Pro-
fessor Riley and others opposed the icU^a of their being specifically
thstinct, not only because of their practical identity in general cliar-

«A summary, with extracts, of this manuscript made by Professor Riley is the
writer's source of information on this valuable paper, which, while containing jnuch
error and wrong inference, vet indicates canM'ul studv and accurate observation.

A SKVKNTKKN-YKAK KACK ANM) A ll 1 1 K TKKN-^ K A K HACK. 17

actcrist ics and liahils. l)iii also on ilic ^i-oiiiid of cxlci-iial >l riicl iirc.
no material dillVrcMicc in I his rc^piMi liaNin^- been noted hclwccn the
two rac(vs. althoni:-li it was known that the indixidiiaK did not ci-oss
\vh(Mi they a|)|)(>ai'ed toi:(Mh(M-. Doetoi" Walsh was \cv\ lirnd\ of the
o|)inion, on th(> olhei- hand, that they re|)res(Mit two distinct spccio.
y(>t in a letter to Mr. Dai'win he d(>^^eI•il)ed the l."!-year I'aee a> an
inei|)ient spi'cies. to which, I'oi- eon\-enienc(\ it is desirable to '/we a
(list incli\(> name." ills ])nl)lishe(l \iews on t li(> sid)ject, u;i\-en in a
I)o>tlHimons paper, are (pioled below.'' KelcM-rin^^ to the impossi-
bility ()( (list inii:iiishiiit^ species in certain ^-enera by a mere compai-i-
son o^ the pcM'icM't spociiiicns, lie says:

r])Mii ilir ^aiiic priii(i])le I strongly incline to believe that the l7-ye:ii- lonii of ilic
j)erio(.lical Ciciula {C. scjftcmkcim Linn.) i.s a di.slinct species from lh<- IM-ycar inim
1 r. (rcdccihi (Walsh and Riley'" ~i Riley), although it has been iinpossiblc lor nie, on
ilie closest examination ol very numerous specimens, to detect any specific differ-
riice between these two forms. It is very true that the 13-year form is confined lo ilic
more southerly regions of the United States, while the 17-year form is geneially. bin
not universally, peculiar to the Northern States; whence it has been, with some show
of i)lausibility, inf(.'rred that the 13-year form is nothing but the 17-year form accel-
erated in iis metamorphosis by the influence of a hot southern climate. But, as these
I wo forms interlock and overlap each other in various localities, and as it fre(iuently
happens that particular broods of the two forms come out in the same year, we should
certainly expect that if the forms belonged to the same species they would occasionally
intercross, whence would arise an intermediate variety having a periodic time of
14, 15, or 16 years. As this does not appear to have taken place, but, on the contrary,
there is a pretty sharp dividing line between the habits of the two forms, without
any intermediate grades of any consequence, I infer that the internal organization of
I he two forms must be distinct, although externally, when placed side by side, they
are exactly alike. Otherwise, what jjossil^le reason could there be for one and the
same species to lie under ground in the larva state for nearly 17 years in one county
and in the next adjoining county to lie under ground in the larva state for scarcely 13
years? I presume that even the most bigoted believer in the old theory of species
would allow that, if it can once be proved to his satisfaction that two apparently
identical forms are always structurally distinct, whether in their external or their
internal organization, they must necessarily be distinct species.

The reasons urged by Doctor Walsh give a strong basis of proba-
bility to the theory of the specific distinctness of the two races, and
particularly the fact that where the })roods overlap there seems to be
no interbreeding. Doctor Walsh's position has been upheld l)y
Dr. Win. 11. Aslunead, who states that in a very careful examination

«See Index to Missouri Entomological Reports, Bui. 6, U. S. Ent. Comm., p. 58.

& American Entomologist, Vol. II, p. 335.

c Taking the ground that Doctor Phares can not l)e crt dilecl willi thf> race name
"tredecim" on account of the ephemeral cliaracicroi" i he journal in w liidi he ciniiloyed
it, the credit should go to Walsh-Riley, since the article in the American 1-niomolo-
gist of December, 18(58, where it was next suggested, was a joini or cdiiorial one.
Professor Riley himself sanctions this course in the r)iblio'_Maj)liy of Economic
Entomology, Part II, p. 01, No. 471.

31117— No. 71—07 2

18 THE PERIODIC. \L CICADA.

of the material in the National Museum he has observed small but
constant difierences between the two races in the shape of the last
ventral segment of both the male and the female.

For the present purpose, however, it seems wiser to consider the
13-year broods as representing a race merely, or an incipient species,
as suggested by Walsh, because of the absolute resembfance in prac-
tically every feature of structure, coloration, and habit, in the two
forms, which exliibit the single important point of difl'erence repre-
sented by the four years' variation in the length of their subterranean
lives.

While in the matter of interbreeding they may be distinct, as the
records seem to prove conclusively, the two races represent one
species for all practical purposes and difler in a very striking manner
from all other species of the family Cicadidse. One race is unques-
tionably the offshoot of the other, the original diflerentiation being
probably caused by some variation in climatic conditions.

It is, perhaps, a hopeless task, and at best only a matter of conjec-
ture, to attempt to explain the phenomenon of what is practically the
same insect requiring in one part of the country seventeen years for
its underground development through its preliminary stages and in
another section thirteen years, in the face of the fact that while, in the
main, the two sections are, respectively, northern and southern, yet at
the point of juncture the broods of the two races overlap. That the
17-3'ear period does not depend so much on the greater severity of the
northern mnters is evident, protected as the insect is by the depth of
its burrows, and the natural explanation is that the longer period of
Avarmthin the South hastens the development of the insect, or, in other
words, that the difference in the length of the warm growing period
during which the insect can thrive and increase in size in the southern
half of its range enables it to go through its development in four years
less time than in the Xorth, where shorter summers and consequently
shorter periods of growth occur. The chief objections to this theor}',
but not necessarily controverting it, are those made b}' Doctors
Smith and Walsh in the quotations given. The problem is, however,
a very interesting one, and some light may be thro\\Ti upon it by
further experiments similar to those described under the head fol-
lowing.

RELATION OF CLIMATE TO THE RACES.

The anomaly presented of two distinct periods for the completion of
the adolescent stages of the periodical Cicada, exliibited by the lo-^'ear
and 17-year races, and its apparent basis in climate led Professor Riley
to institute some careful experiments in transferring the eggs of the
1 o-year race, collected in various Southern States, to different locali-
ties in the North, and conversely, eggs of the 17-year race collected in
the North to localities in the South, to determine the actual influence

I

RELATION OK CLIMATK To THK HACKS. 19

of loni|)(M-;Uin-(^ or w IkM licr the l.'l-vcar vi\cv would main tain il> iionnal
])iM-ic)(l ill the Noi'th and the IT-ycar race in (he vSouth. Tlic ohjcct of
tlio ox|)(M-iniont . in otlicr words, was (o dctcnnine wlictlici- the dillci--
enco in time of (Unc^lopinent IxMwctMi {]\v two races is r(>all\ <nic of
climate and temperature only or whether a Wxcd characteristic has
been ac(|iiire(l, not suhjcu't to imicli, if any, modification w ith clian^in^
temj)erature conditions. That the separation was ori^inalU caused
by diU'ereiices in climate in dillerent parts of the ran^e of the species
can not be doubted, but th<^ fact that tlie two races often overlaj) in the
adjoininir territory of tluMr respective ranges would seem to indicate
that this time })eriod has become in the course of a<i:es a rather
j)ermanent feature.

Doctor Jvil(>y's early experiments in this direction were in 1881
with the 13-year Brood XIX, but the e<i:<xs distributed were in such
condition that it is doubtful if they hatched, and the effort failed.

A nmch more elaborate test was instituted in the summer of 1885,
in connection with the joint appearance that 3^ear of the 13-year
Brood XXIII, which returned in 1898, and the 17-year Brood X,
which retiu'ued in 19012. All possible precautions were observed not
only to collect the eg(2:-bearing twigs at the right moment and to
distribute them in fresh, healthy condition, but to see also that they
were i)roperly ])laced under suitable trees and that a record w^as made
in each instance of the exact locality. Furthermore, most of the
transfers were kept under observation for a time to see that the eggs
actually hatched and the larvae entered the soil in their new^ situations.
The record of these transfers is given in detail in the report of the
Entomologist, Report of the Department of Agriculture for 1885,
pages 254-257, and was reproduced in Bulletin 14 as Appendix A.
The eggs of the 13-year brood were collected in Mississippi between
July 6 and 17, and distributed to entomologists in Xew York, Iowa,
Massachusetts, and Maine in eleven lots. The eggs of the 17-year
Brood X were collected in Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Michigan,
chiefly in the latter State, between July 6 and 21, and distributed in
seventeen different lots to correspondents or entomologists in Georgia,
Mississi])pi. Alabama, and Missouri. The preliminary report on the
condition of this material is given in the appendix cited of Bulletin 14.
The only positive record received was from Prof. Eugene A. Smith,
University of Alabama, w^ho found in 1898 one pupal shell and
noticed several holes in the ground which answered to the description
of exit openings made by the Cicada. The pupal shell was sent to me
and proved to belong to the periodical species. That it comes from
the eggs planted in LS85 seems probable, from the fact that no brood
was due in this locality in 1S9S. niid this would seem to indicate that
the 17-year brood may be greatly abbreviated or reduced to the
13-year term in a warmer latitude. Part of the eggs sent to Professor

20 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Smith came from Indiana and the rest from Micliicran. Too miicn
im])()rtance, however, can not be o^iven to this isohUed experience.
Correspondence was kej)t up with as many of the points as coukl be
readied during the next four years, but no further records were
o])tainabk\

Nothing whatever came of the 13-year material sent to nortliern
h)cahties.

The difhculty in an experiment of this kind hes in the long term
over which it extends, and the inevitable changes of local conditions
and the removal or death of observers intrusted with the experiment.
It is necessary, as demonstrated by a later test (see pp. 114-116) of
c^^g transfers, to have an enormous c^uantity of eggs to insure the insects
going through the entire term undestroyed by natural enemies or
accidents.

THE DWARF PERIODICAL CICADA.

In connection with the discussion of the 13-year and 17-year races of
the Cicada, it is interesting to note also that in both races the insect
occurs in two distinct types, viz, a large form and a small form,
the former comprising the bulk of the individuals of the brood and
the latter more rare and often unobserved. The existence of these
two types was commented upon as early as 1830 b}' Doctor Hildreth.
of Marietta, Ohio,^ and was especially remarked in the great Cicada
year 1868. The typical larger Cicada (fig. 1, A) measures on an
average I2- inches from the head to the tip of the closed wings and
expands over 3 inches. The underside of the abdomen is of a dull
orange-browai color and in the male four or five segments are of the
same color on the back. The smaller form is rarely more than two-
thirds the size of the larger, and usualh^ lacks altogether the light
abdominal markings, although they are sometimes represented on
the edge of the segments beneath.

The small form (fig. 1, B) was described in 1851 as a distinct species.
Cicada cassinii, by Dr. J. C. Fisher. ^ The contention that it rcj^re-
sents a distinct species was urged particularly on the ground that there
exists a variation in the genitalia, but this variation has since been
shown by Professor Riley not to be constant, and specimens are to be
found in both sizes which present the same structure in these parts.

In view of the close anatomical correspondence, except in size, of
tlie two forms and the fact that they always occur together in the same
l)i-oo(ls and have the same anomalous subterranean period of larval
and pupal life, the specific importance of the smaller Cicada has been
naturally open to question, and in Bulletin 14 the writer was inclined

" Silliman's Journal, XVIII, p. 47.

bFroc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., Vol. V., p. 272.

THK DWAKK KOKM

21

to consider tliis sinnll form ns n wwio xaruMy or, in()i-(» properly, a
(liniorphic variedly iA' the lnrij:(M' form.

On (lit^ autlu)i"ily oi' \arioiis o1)S(M"\'(M-s (-(Miain (liNcrLrcncc-. in liaMis
l)ot\\(HMi lli(> (wo t'oI•|U-^ wcvc coiuiiKMUcd iipoii. Il sccincd (o he llic
tj^eiuM'al Ixdirl' llial thi^ lari^iM- one appears soiiu'wliat cai'licM', fioiii
ci0\l to ten days, and corrc^sixjndinixly, also, the sniall(M- form disap-
p(Mirs sonu'wlial lahM'in \\\c s(\ison than the lar^M'r. Tlie smaller
cicadas were also I'cportcd by \'ari()ns ()l)s(>r\(»i"s as bcin*:; moi'c or less
<i:re*j:arioiis in habit, not always intermin<j:linu: with the larirer oncvs but.
colU^ctini:; in snu-dl (•om[)ani(\s in orchards or in thickets alon<: sti'(>ains
and moist })lac(v^. Furtber, tbe son^^ note of the small form was
somewhat diH'cMHMit . l)ut this last variation was not fully confirmed.

Tliis small Cicada was particularly n()t(>d in the case of I^i'ood X
at the time it was studied by
Walsh and Kiley in 1S6S and,
judirini2: from the records ob-
tained of this brood of 1885
and 1902, Brood X seems to
be its ])articular strongliold,
although it occurs witli other
broods, often ver}" scatter-

In 1 002 the writer observed
this small form in great abun-
dance in and near the District
of Cohnnbia, but, contrary to
the former l)elief, it appeared
in larg(^ pei'cc^ntagc^ during
the first week or ten days of
the emergence of the Cicada,
])r()l)al)ly repr(>s(>nt ing 50 per
cent of the specimens, and soon disappeared. Both sexes were rep-
resented, and mating and oviposit ion seemed to go on normally as
witli the large form. The song notes of the dwarf Cicada were dis-
tinctly different from the common note of the large Cicada, namely,
a broken and chirping note, very shrill and loud. The abundance
of the small form in 1902 and \]\v difference in its song notes were
observed by various persons throughout the range of the brood.

A careful statistical study of the variation in size and character-
istics of the large and small for-ms ^\•as made in connection with the
1902 appearance of this brood in Ohio by Prof. Herbert Osljorn.'*
Professor Osborn examined and made careful measurements of some
800 specimens taken at random from various localities. The results

Fig. 1.— The periodical Cicadca: A, male of typical
form, natural size; c, d, genital hooks enlarged; g,
singing apparatus, natural size: B, male of the small
form (ca.s.sznu'), natural size; e,f, genital hooks, en-
larged. (After Ril(>y and Hagen.)

"Ohio Xaiiiralisi. III. pp. :',_':i i'.i'd, \h-ci-

22 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

of these measurements indicated a decided constancy for each variety
and for each sex of each variety in wing lengths and widths and l)ody
lengths. The color Aariation was also very constant. Tlie ahdomen
of the cassinii form is normally entirely black beneath, only rare
specimens showmg a narr()\\' hind border of yellowish or orange
3'ellow. The cross veins also on the wing forming the W mark are
commonly less black, and the W therefore shortened. This point,
however, as in the normal form, seems subject to wider variation
than the other features.

There is a difference in genitalia, but apparently not enough to
exclude the idea of crossing, and, according to Riley, this difl'erence
is not constant. In the mating, out of seventy pairs observed there
was no instance of cassinii pairing with the normal large form,
evidencmg an apparently complete isolation by sexual selection.
Professor Osborn shows, therefore, that there is no ground for con-
sidering the small form as a dimorphic or seasonal stage of the large.

Professor Osborn infers that the cassinii is a derived form, since it
appears less commonly than the other and probably has a more
restricted range, and suggests that it may be possibly a ^'depatiperate
variet}^" which has become in the course of ages fulh' established,
especiall}' vdih Brood X, being very rare wdth Broods III and XIII,
which he had also studied. He concludes: '^Whether this form be
called a variety, subspecies, or species, is, it seems to me, of less
importance than a recognition of its distmctness, and the determina-
tion, if possible, of its phylogenetic relationsliip."

The nomenclature of the species, variet}^, and races of the periodical
Cicada adopted by the \\Titer is the same as that followed in Bulletin
14, namely, the Linnaean species Tihicen (Cicada) septendecim, with
the tredecim race of Walsh and Rile}", and the variety cassimi of Fisher.

THE BROODS OF THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

The subject of the broods of the periodical Cicada presents a number
of mteresting fields of inquiry, such as the consideration of the origin
of the broods, their chronological historv and classification, and their
exact geographical limits or distribution. These topics Avill be taken
up somewhat in detail, with the exception of the chronological liistory
of the appearances during the last two hundred years and accompany-
ing voluminous historical records, which, for reasons to be later noted,
have been largely omitted.

The Origix of the Broods.

It is not necessaril}" true, but it is a reasonable inference, that in the
early period of the existence of the periodical Cica(h\ on this continent
it was represented l)y a single brood. Assuming tliis to have been the

I

THK OKTCJI-N" OF TIIK BROODS. 23

case, tho Cicada would Innc n|)|)(>ar(Ml (^vcrvwluM-c over its ran;i;<' in l lie
saino year and j)r()l)al)l\ at about t he same t iine. In t he lon<i; coui'sc of
ages, with the conseciuent important chanii-es i:;eo<^rai)hic. chmatic,
and t()j)oii:raj)hi(' this orii^inal brood Ix'came ^rachially broken u|) into
nuiny broods, with constantly incnMisini^ (nv(M-<z:(Mice in the dates of
appearance, so that at \\\o present time nearly e\-ei"y yeai- has its
])r()()d, or l)roods, each of which is limitcMl, as a rule, to well-defined
districts, and each r(Mi|)p(\irinii- at the |)r()per intervals with absolute
reii;ulai'ity. Of th(> upward of twenty broods which ha\'e been dill'er-
entiated, most of them have Ixhmi carefully studied, chronological
records collected, and tlie limits of distribution fairly well determined.
For conveni(Mice of refercMice, these broods have been designated by
Koman numerals, as Brood VI, Brood XXVI, etc.

The origin of distinct broods m an insect possessing as long a
developing period as the one under discussion is not difficult of expla-
nation. It is a well-knoA\-n phenomenon in connection with insect life
that, whatever may ])e the period of development of a species, certain
individuals will often, for some reason or other, such as insufficient
or unsuitable food, unfavorable temperature, or other conditions, be
delayed or retarded, while others, for reasons the converse of the last,
namely, conditions exceptionally favorable, will develop more rapidly
or will ])e accelerated and appear earlier. Therefore, under the former
conditions we have a longer and under the latter conditions a shorter
life period.

This is true to a slight degree at the present time of the periodical
Cicada, and especially with the larger broods has it been noticed that
scattering individuals appear the year before and others the year after
the great brood year. It is not difficult to imagine, therefore, that
under exceptional conditions some of the earlier appearing individuals
or the later ones may occur in sufficient numbers to establish a w^ell-
marked peculiarity in this direction and form a new brood appearing a
year earlier or a yeariater than the original one. If in the long course
of years some accident should happen to the parent brood in that
portion of its range the derivative brood might be left to hold the
territory alone or to become the predominant swarm.

This explanation is supported also by the fact that it often happens
that the broods of two successive years occupy contiguous territory,
as, for example, the 13-year Brood XXII, which last appeared in 1897,
is distributed between Vicksburg and New Orleans, or just south of
the 13-year brood which appeared in 1898. It is reasonable to infer,
therefore, that Brood XXI I is sim[)ly a strong, well-established colony
of accelerated individuals from the southern end of Brood XXITI,
with a 13-year period terminating one year earlier than that of the
parent brood. The conditions w^hich led to the emergence of the
insect below \'icksburg in twelve years some time in the remote past

24 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

being temporary, this portion of tlie old brood resumed the normal
13-year period.

Another marked instance of the same kind is shown in the relations
between Brood XI and Brood X, the former being merely an appen-
dix or a continuation in a northeasterly direction of the territory occu-
pied by the eastern branch of Brood X, which always precedes Brood
XI by one year. The interrelations of these and all the other broods
are indicated in the discussion of the distribution of the Cicada.

Ijocal or temporary conditions which have caused a moderate
change in the time of emergence of the Cicada are on record, one
notable instance resulting from an artificial heatmg of the soil by hot
pipes (see p. 90).

A similar instance of acceleration of Brood XIII, due in 1905, l)ut
amounting to a full year, occurred in 1904 in a greenhouse at Belvidere,
111. The o^^^ler, ^Ir. B. Eldredge, writes that in 1888 he moved from
Chicago to Belvidere, and found ever3"thing covered with, locusts,
and an enormous amount of damage to all kinds of slirubs and trees
was done. At the time he bought the place it was covered v\dth an old
apple orchard, and the locusts worked very abundantly in these trees.
Some seven years afterwards these trees were grubbed out and the
ground covered with greenhouses, and the ground so protected had
been kept warm winter and summer ever since. Mr. Eldredge is
convinced, and he is undoubtedly right in this belief, that this con-
tinual heat and absence of frost accounts for the appearance of the
locusts in his greenhouses a 3'ear ahead of time.

He states that the locusts appeared in quantity. Before the mat-
ter was brought to the writer's attention they had largely disappeared,
but two adult locusts were submitted and a lot of shed skins, which
fulty confirmed the identification of the insect. It woidd be rather
interesting to know more about the local conditions to determine how
the cicadas were able to survive in soil from which the vegetation
must have been entirely removed.

An instance of a few weeks acceleration under outdoor conditions
is given by Mr. Schwarz.^ Commenting on the slighth' earlier emer-
gence of individuals of Brood XIV near Harpers Ferry, W. Ya., in
1889, in a small clearing surrounded by woods, Mr. Schwarz urges
that a clearing made in the midst of a dense forest forms a natural
hothouse, the soil receiving in such places much more warmth tluui
in the shady woods. That the cicadas shotdd appear a little earlier
in such situations is not remarkable, and he suggests also that under
favorable circumstances the Cicada might develop on such cleared
places one or more years in advance of the normal time, and that
these preciu'sors, if munerous enough, would be able to form a new
brood. ,

o Proo. Ent. ^nc. "Wash.. I. p. 230.

THK CI.ASSIFKWTTON OK TIIK 1?K(M)I)S. 25

It is possil)l(^ Id c()1U'(MV(> also of conditions wliicli would icsuli in
tlie accoleralioii or rolardalion in the dc^vclopincni of an (Milirc* l)rood
or l)i'()ods of the Cicada, sucli as variation in diinatic conditions,
i:ci)loi:ical (dianirc^s. oi- cliani:(>d conditions of the lo|)oL::i'a])liy of tlic
connti'v. incdiidini!: the tdiai'actcr of the vci^c^tat ion.

In this oi- oth(M' ways, at any rato, tlic Cicada has l)cconic hrol^cn
np into a liw^c nninl)cr of distinct ])i-oods, oft(Mi cox'crinL: different
t(M'iMloi"y, hnt not n(>c(\ssarily so (h)ini::, ('acli, liowcx'cr, maiiuainini:;
its rcixnlai" time of app(^aranc(\

Th(^ shi^ht hnt constant ten(hMicy to variation ^\]n(•ll lias ])ron<r]it
into exislenc(^ tlu> hioods now so well marked, coiitinncnl indefiniteh',
wonld so ])reak up and scatter the present broods as to ultimately
o1)scm'(^ tluMn altoiretlier, and the overlaj^ping of districts and tlic
variation in time of appearance would lead to a rather o^eneral occur-
rence every year of the p(M"i()dical Cicada throughout its range, the
long period for development, however, still persisting. Anticipating
sucli an outcome from the intermixture and overlapping merely of
different broods, Doctor Smith (Smith MS.) rather mournfidly says:
"In those times, if these sayings of mine should be thought of, they
will be ridiculed as a superstitious legend of the olden times."

The Classification of the ])Roods.

In the first edition of this bulletin the numerical designation of the
broods of the two races suggested by Professor Riley was followed.
This numbering has, however, objectionable features and obscures
the relations of the broods of each race to each other. To overcome
these objections a new system of numbering was proposed by the
writer," which has since been generally adopted. The reasons for
making this change and the numerical designations proposed are here
reproduced with little change from the publication cited.

The earlier ^vTiters, viz, Prof. Nat. Potter, Dr. William T. Harris,
and Dr. G. B. Smith, classified the broods solely according to the
years of tlieir appearance. The unpublished register left by Doctor
Smith includes every important brood now known classified accord-
ing to race, and gives the localities for one additional l)r()()d, the
(wistence of which seems not to have been confirmed. Though
lacking an}" special designation for the broods, Doctor Smith's classi-
lication is as complete and accurate as that published b}^ Doctor
Kiley and since followed by all later writers. ^ Dr. Asa Fitch was the
first to introduce a numbering system for the different l»roods. ouw-
merating nine altogether, but his data were very limited and h(> was
not aware of the thirteen-year southern period, and there necessarily
resulted no little confusion of th(> broods of the two races. The

«Riill. 18, n. s.. T)iv. Eiil., V. S. I).|.i. A-ri... j.]). 52-58, ]898.
& See Appendix.

26

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

. AValsli-Riley enumeration of 1878 gave the records for sixteen broods,
wliicli were designated by Roman numerals from I to XA'I, the enumer-
ation being based on the se([uen('e of the difl'erent broods after 1868.
In 1809, in his First Missouri lieport, Professor Riley, liavingin the
meantime secured the manuscript paper of Doctor Smith, added the
six broods from this paper not represented in the Walsh-Riley enu-
meration, increasing the number of the broods to XXII, and renum-
])ered them again in accordance with their sequence, beginning with
1S69. These broods vary enormously in their extent, some of them
being represented by scattered colonies, which perhaps have no real
relationship in point of origin, and others covering nearly uniformly
vast stretches of territory extending over several States together.
Several are rather unimportant, or lack confirmation, and one of
them. Brood III, was founded on an erroneous record and has been
dropped.

In the enumeration of the broods by Walsh-Riley, and later l)y
Riley, the two races are mixed together and a sequence of numbers
given which, after the first thirteen years, lost all significance as a
record of the order of the broods in time of appearance, and from
the first obscured the true kinship of the broods in each race. If, on
the other hand, each race be considered separately and its broods be
arranged in a series in accordance A\^th their sequence in time, an
important natural relationship in point of origin and distribution is
plainly indicated.

Taking first tlie broods of the 17-year race, as Rile}' numbered them,
it vdW be seen from the subjoined table tliat if the enumeration begin
with Brood XI, the 17-year broods follow each other in regular succes-
sion for eleven consecutive years, then after a break of one year fol-
low Broods Y and VIII, and after another break of one year Brood
IX. Another break of one year precedes the next recurrence of Brood
XI, with which the series starts.

Chronological order of the Riley broods of the Cicada from 1893 to 1910.

Year.

17-year
race.

13-year
race.

Year.

17-year
race.

13-year
race.

1893

XI
XII
XIII
XIV

XV
XVII
XIX

XX
XXI

XVI

XVIII
II
IV
VI
VII

1902

XXII
I

' "v "■

VIII

* IX ■ " ■

189-1

190?

190-1

1905

190(1

1907

1908

::::::::::

1895.

....

189()

1897

XVI

1898

XVIII

1899. . . .

II

1900.

1909

IV

1901

X

1910

XI

VI

Taking up the 1 3-year broods in the same way, it will be seen that
if the enumeration start with Brood XYI, a 13-year brood follows in
regular succession for six years. With the exception of the ver^'
doubtful Jk'ood X, which is separated from the last 13-year brood by

THE rLASSIFICATION OK THK HKOODS. ' 27

tlireo years, ihcre follow s(>\(mi siic('(»ssi\ (> years in wliidi no IM-xcar
broods occ-iii".

riulor tlie siipposil ion (hat 1 1\(> dilliMcnl hroods of 1 lie IT-ycarand
lo-ycar" races s])i'anL:.- in the lUMnote past frctni an original brood of
each, it would naturally follow tliat tlu> hi-oods most closely related
in time would also pr(^-^(Mlt a closer I'clat ionsliij) in theii- F'aniic and
this, in fact. pro\(»s to \)o ucMUM-ally tru(\

'I'o sliow this rc^lat ionsliij) and to indicate* th(> natural order of their
occui'r(Mic(\ 1 ha\(» suji:si'est(Ml a new eiuimei'at ion of the hioods in
which the two rac(\s ar(^ s(»parated — the 17-year l)i-oods cominij: first,
followed, for conviMU(Mic(^ merely, b}^ the 13-year bioods. Thus
Brood XI of the 17-year race becomes Brood 1, and the others are
nund)ere(l in the reuidar order of their occurrence, except that 1
have assij^ned a brood jiinnber to each of the seventeen years. This
leaves Broods XII, XA', and XYII, as newly numbered, without
any definite colonies, so far accepted, as representatives of established
broods. As will be show^n later, however, there are records which
indicate the existence of small or scattering broods filling the three
gaps mentioned in the 17-year series.

In renumbering the broods of the 13-year race I have continued
for convenience from the end of the series of the 17-year race, the first
13-year l)rood becoming Brood XYIII, and I have assigned brood
numbers to each year of the 13-year period, making a total enumera-
tion of the broods of both races of XXX. As already indicated, six
of the numbers given to the 13-year race have had no brood assigned
to them, although records have been secured which seem to indicate
the existence of scattering broods filling some of the gaps, as will be
noted in the records given further on.

It does not necessarily follow, in fact it is quite unlikely, that Brood
I, as here designated, is the original or oldest brood of the 17-year
race. Undoubtedly some of the 17-year broods, perhaps half or more
of them, originated by retardation of individuals, and perhaps half
by acceleration of individuals; so that the original brood, if it still
exists, is more likely to be one of the intermediate ones. Brood X,
being the largest of the 17-year broods, perhaps has best claim to
this distinction.

For the same reasons an intermediate brood in the 13-year series
is doubtless the original brood of the 13-}' ear race, and this title may
possibly belong to Brood XIX, which has the widest range of all the
broods of the 13-year race. The fewer number of broods in this race
would seem to indicate that it is of later origin than the 17-year race,
and tjiis belief is further justified by the fact of ita occupying, in the
main, a territory of later geological formation.

The following table, beginning with 1893, wlien the initial ])ro()ds
of both the 17-year and the 13-year series appeared in conjunction,

28

THE PERTODTCAL CICADA.

illustrates the new nomenclature su<r<i:;ested, and in parallel columns
also are given the corresponding nomenclatures proposed Vjy Professor
Riley, hy Fitch, and the year records in Doctor ^Smith's register:

Xoimncluhirr of Ou broods of the pcriodkal Ckadu.

Brood

3 of the 17-year race.

Broods of the 13-year race.

Year.

Proposed

enumer- j

ation. 1

Rile.v

num-

- bers.

Fitch
num-
bers'.

Smith
regis-
ter.

Proposed
enumer-
ation.

Riley
nuni-
bers.

Fitch
num-
bers.

Smith
register.

1893

I

II i
III i
IV

^>I

VII
VIII
IX

X 1

XI 1

XII I
XIII

XIV

XV

XVI
XVII .

XI
XII
XIII
XIV

XV
XVII
XIX

XX
XXI
XXII

I

i

5

7

2-8'

4*

9

1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855

XVIII

XIX

XX

XXI

XXII

XXIII

XXIV

XXV

XXVI

XXVII

XXVIII

XXIX

XXX

XVIII

XIX

XX

XXI

XVI
XVIII

II

IV

VI

VII

3"

5'

1854

1S94

1842-1855

1895

1843

189<i

1844

1897

1845

1898

184r»-1859

1899

1900 . ...

1901

X

1S49

1902

1903

1904

1905

V
VIII

6
3

190G

XVI
XVIII

II

IV

3'

1854

1907

1842-1855

1908

IX

1843

1909

1844

The Relationship of the Different Broods.

As a rule, the relationship of the broods in point of distribution
agrees ^viih their kinship as indicated by their sequence in time of
appearance. The relationship indicated by the latter, viz, their
sequence in time, is doubtless untrustworthy as indicating origin, in
some instances on account of the uncertainty arising from the action
of the principle of retardation on the one hand and acceleration on
the other in the forming of new broods.

In the case of a ^\ddely scattered brood, like Brood VI, it is quite
possible that certain swarms originated from a later-appearing brood
by retardation of individuals, and other swarms from an earlier
brood by acceleration in time of appearance of individuals.'^

This same condition may be true of other of the more scattered
l:)roods, but with the broods presenting a compact range a singleness
of origin is evident.

Examination of the distribution of the broods in connection ^^^th
their sequence in time of appearance indicates, however, a certain

" Prof. "\V. E. Castle, ^luseum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge. Mass., in a letter
to the writer July 20, 1898, suggested a plausible theory for Brood VI. The isolation
and wide distribution of this brood leads him to infer that it may be a relatively old
or ''played out" brood, and if this l)e true it may ho considered the parent of Broods
Y and VII, the former an offshoot by acceleration and the latter by retardation of
development. He suggests, however, that the Pennsylvania portion of Brood VII
may have (u-iginated independently of the New York part, since it lies in the moun-
tainous country, where the broods would naturally be mixed up more than in any
other part of the range of the 17-year race. In Ohio he notes that the distinct areas

RELATIONSHIP OF SKVKNTKKX-VK AK HKOODS. 29

folationshi]) IxMwcumi th(^ dillVroiil l)i'o()cls in point of ori^qn. wliidi
may ho iiulicalcd as follows:

I'lii: i;i:i. \ iioNsiiii" ok 'I'ln-. sk\'i:ntkkn-vkau ukoods.

From tlio standpoint of disti-ibntion tlio broods of tlu^ 17-yoar rare
mav be <;r()U})(Ml as follows: (1) Broods I and II; (2) Broods ill and
IV-! (3) Brood V; (4) l^rood \1; (5) Broods VII, VIII, IX, X, and
XI; (6) Broods XII, XIII, XIV, and XV; (7) Broods XM and
XVII, the last connectin«2: a^j^ain with Ih'ood I.

Takinir up those broods in re^ijidar order:

The main l)ody of Brood I occupies territory innn(M]iately west of
the more important and perhaps parent Brood Jl. and also presents
a number of colonies exten(hn<2: westward to Kansas. Broods I and
II seem, therefore, closely allied in point of origin.

Brood III presents little, if any, relationship to Brood IT in ])()int
of location and distribution, but is closely allied to the following
brood, I\ , and the latter is evidently a retarded western and soutiiern
extension of III.

Brood A' presents little relationship witli Brood IV in point of dis-
tribution and covers a very compact territory.

Brood \1, being a widely scattered one, and occurring usually in
small numbers, does not seem to present any particular relationshij:)
with any of the preceding or following broods unless the explanation
suggested by Professor Castle be accepted.

Brood VII is local in distribution and not very important, and is
divided into two sections by the territory occupied by the following
brood, VIII, with which it thus seems to be closely allied. Brood
IX is very distinctly a southern extension of Broods VII and VIII,
These three broods seem, therefore, to be closely allied in their
origin, and, curiously enough, occupy territory which divides the
two main sections of the great IT-A^ear Brood X, which next follows
in r(^gular succession, and is perhaps the oldest or parent brood of
the 17-year race. Brood XI, following X, is evidently an extreme
northeastern extension of the latter.

Brood XII is roj)rosented l)y a series of very d()ul)tful records,
\\liicli. if \"ali(lato(l in future rc^turn periods, will connect the western

covered by Brood VI he for the most part just outside the area covered by Brood V
and on opposite sides of the latter.

This interpretation by Professor C'aslh^ may ho in ])ari con-cd ; Imt in view
of the wide range of this l)rood and the very scattering nature and separation of
the individual swarms, it' seems to me more pro])a1)l(' to account for it as a develop-
ment of scattering broods originating for the most )):iri iiidiixiulciitl y by means of
retardation or acceleration from other broods, and none ol ilu; colonics developing
enough to fill and hold any very large definite territory. In other words, most of the
colonies are probably of late origin rather than the remnants of an old, extensive,
worn-out brood.

30 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Brood XTTI with <^roiip 5. Brood XIII is the principal western rep-
resentative of group 6, which, through the three broods XIII, XR',
and XV, extends from the extreme western to the eastern hmits of
the Cicada. Brood XIV has a very wide range to the eastward of
XIII, and connects with the latter through the colonies m northern
Illinois and Indiana. Brood X\' is limited to the Atlantic seaboard
and connects directly with the eastern colonies of XIV.

Brood XA'I is based on somewhat doubtful records and is unim-
portant. Brood XVII is intermediate between Brood X^'I and
Brood I, its western colonies comiected with the former and tlie
eastern colonies with the latter.

THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE THIRTEEX-YEAR BROODS.

The broods of the 13-year race break up into the following natural
groups: (1) Related closely to Brood XIX, and comprising Broods
XVIII, XIX, and XX; and (2) related to Brood XXIII, and com-
2>rising Broods XXI, XXII, XXIII, and our new Brood XXIV.

The first of these broods. Brood XVIII, is a rather insignificant
one and is undoubtedl}' an eastern extension or offshoot of the great
13-year Brood XIX, which succeeds it. Brood XX, is undoubtedly a
section of Brood XIX retarded one 3'ear, just as Brood XVIII
consists of accelerated swarms of the same.

Brood XXI, separated from Brood XIX by two years, seems to
bear little relationship to the latter, and a more logical arrangement
consists in connecting it with Brood XXIII through Brood XXII,
of wliich last it may be considered as an eastern and northern exten-
sion. Brood XXII is a very marked instance of the formation of a
new brood by an acceleration in time of the appearance of a portion
of a larger and older brood. Its relationship with Brood XXIII is
A^ery marked and can not be questioned. Brood XXIII, the main
representative of this group, is followed by the new Brood XXIV,
wliich is evidently a retarded swarm of the preceding brood.

Of Broods XXVI and the new Broods XXIX and XXX, both of
wliich need verification, no significant relationship can be pointed
out. Brood XXIX is very doubtful, and the records are possibly
based on a confusion with the 17-year race.

Sources of Error ix the Old Records.

In examining the records of the distribution of the broods of the
periodical Cicada, it is seen that considerable uncertainty attaches
to the data of certain broods, not only from the fact of their covering,
in greater or less degree, territory occupied by both races, but more
particularly because the records are frec[uently based on 3'ears in wliich
broods so overlapping have appeared in conjunction.

SOURCES OF KKKOK IN THK OT.D KKCoRDS. 31

In tlio case of \\\o l)i-()ods of th(' IT-ycar I'acc. tlic follow in^; cMcikI
on tlioir southern l)oun(lai-irs into tlic territory of the KJ-yeai- race.
and lienee the records ol tlie soutliern loeahties ar(> oixmi to >oiiu'
{(uestion: l^roods \'l, \, XI\ . W'l, 1. 1\', to a sliirlit e\t(Mit also
in the easi^ oi Broods 11 and 111, and doubtfully in the case of l)idod
IX, the ])ossil)ility of confusion in this hist l)ro()(l (h'|)en(linL^ on lli(>
accuracN' i){' \\\v extreme northeastern extension of the l.'l-\-eai' l)roo(l
XIX.

Tlie foUowin*: l)roods of the lo-y(»ar rac(> (\xtend noi'thwaid into the
tcM'ritorv ,occui)i(nl ])\ the 17-N(>ar rac(\ and hence are o|)en to .some
(luestion: Broods XXIII, XVJll, XIX, and XX.

The records can not be ((uestioned on this (j^roinul of th(> 17-\('ai"
Ikoods VIL VTIT, XI, XIII, and V, and of tlie 13-year Broods XX1\ ,
XXI, and XXII, because these ])r()()(ls are limited in distribution
to the territory of a single race.

The most notable instance of the overlappintr and conse(|uent piol)-
abl(^ confusion of the records is seen in the case of Brood X of tlie
17-year race with Broods XXIII and XIX of the 13-year race. The
remarkable feature in the distribution of the broods named is the
notable extension northward in Illinois and Missouri of the 13-year
Broods XXIII and XIX, which fills almost exactly a district which
woidd naturally be supposed to belong to the 17-year race and prob-
ably to Brood X. As pointed out in Bulletin 14, page 26, this circum-
stance had special significance in view of the fact that the northward
extension of the 13-year race is based on Broods 'XIX and XXIII,
and that the records prior to 1898 of the former were collected for the
most ])art in 1868, when this brood w^as in conjunction with Brood X,
and of the latter in 1885, when Brood XXIII was also in conjunction
with Brood X, the limits of which, curiously enough, stop rather
suddenly at .)r near the eastern State line of Illinois. The possi-
1)ility \vas immediately suggested that the northern localities assigned
to Broods XIX and XXIII properly belong to Brood X.

Tlie occiiiion of the reappearance of the 13-year Brood XXIII in
is'.is witliout any important 17-year l)rood to confuse tln^ records
and of the 17-year Brood X in 1902, also without a joint occurrence
of any important 13-year brood, gave the opportunity wished for to
determine the validity of old records and to fix more accurately th(>
distribution of the three broods concerned.

A Ycry thorough canvass was made in 1S9S of the territory coven^d
i)y Brood XXIII, and especially the territory in doubt, by calling
into requisition the very numerous county correspondents of the
Statistical Division of the Dej^artment of Agriculture and also of the
^Veather ^Service in adch'tion to tli(> regular correspondents of the
Division of Entomology. Several thousand replies were received,

32 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

negative and positive. Reports were also kindly submitted Ijy
Professor Forbes, of Illinois, which added four or five counties to
the records obtained for that State, and other reports were received
from entomologists of other States covered by this l)rood. A })re-
limmary report was published in Bulletin 14, and a full report in
Bulletin 18, of this Bureau. The records obtained confirmed the
general accuracy of the old belief of the distribution of Brood XXIII.
The occurrence of scattering colonies of the 17-year Brood VI over
some of the territory adds a slight element of doubt; but in the
main the records given for Brood XXIII, taken in comiection with
older records, are probabty correctly assigned.

The data obtained of the 17-year Brood X in 1902 is even more
satisfactory, inasnmch as in this case there was no 13-year brood to
throw doubt on any of the records. The same means was taken to
get full reports as were used in 1898; and, rather to our surprise, the
substantial correctness of the old records is strikingly demonstrated,
as seen on the map published in connection with the detailed discus-
sion of this brood. Thirteen-^^ear Brood XXIII covers southern
Illinois, with a scattermg outpost through southern Indiana. Brood
X stops, as hitherto believed, near the eastern line of Illinois, with
a few scattering outposts. There is overlappmg, but, in the mahi,
south-central and western Illinois and eastern and central -^lissouri
seem to belong to the 13-year race, as hitherto believed.

The recurrence this 3^ear of the great 13-year Brood XIX without
any 17-year brood to confuse the records will give an opportunity
to complete the data relative to the distribution of these three over-
lapping broods, but the records already obtained of Broods X and
XXIII indicate very strongly the probable correctness of the old
records of Brood XIX.

Many of the other scattering records of 13-3'ear broods northward,
or of 17-3"ear broods southward, may possibh^ be based on similar con-
fusions, arising from the overlapping of broods of the two races.

The only way to accurately defme the range of the different broods
is to undertake with each recurrence a thorough and systematic
investigation of all the territory open to the least doubt. Such work
has been repeatedly instituted, and particularly since 1868, and many
of the more strictly limited broods have been very carefully recorded,
and their distribution has been satisfactorily defmed. Work of this
kind has been done for Brood III in Iowa by Professor Bessey, and
for Brood V in Ohio and West Virginia by Professors Webster and
Hopkins. Similar work has been done for Brood II in Xew York
and New Jersey by Doctors Lintner and Smith, and for X and XXIII
by Riley m 1885, and for Brood XIX by Walsh and Riley m 1868.

KUOODS OF 14, ir., OK 1(1 YKAK TKHIODS. 33

The valiio of a ihoroui^li and sysU'inatic canvass of (lie tci'ritorv
supposed to be covenul \)\ any brood is exbibited in inncli of the
work referred to abov{\ and notal)ly in tlie casc^ of Biood \' studied
])y Professors Webster and Hopkins in Ohio and West XiiMrinia. In
{ho eas(» of this brood, however, there was no dillicidt y fioni an
association witli any 13-year brood.

Ijkoods ok 11, 15, OK H) ^'i;Ait Tiikiods.

The most notal)h^ thinii: about tlu^ periochcal Cicacbi is tli(M-(\iruhirit v
with wliich it has reappeared during more than 200 years of rcM-ords
at th(^ stated intervals of 13 years for the Southern race and 17 years
for the Northern race. If all the cicadas belonged to a 13-year or a
17-year ])eriod — in other words, if there were but one period — this
regularity would be less surprising. But the records are so complete
and full that there can be no doubt whatever of the absolute
imiformity of ])eriods for the tw^o races for the vast majority of the
individuals. That unusual conditions will, however, hasten the
development or retard it a year or more has been already indicated
on page 24, together with notable examples of artificial acceleration.
In vie\N of these last instances there can be no doubt that this regu-
larity of appearance is governed more by the uniformity of tempera-
ture conditions over a long period of years than from any inherent
({ualities in the insect itself. If these conditions are interfered Avith,
however, the Cicada becomes, as it did in the greenhouse at Belvi-
dere, 111., accelerated one year; and if such conditions occurred in
nature over a large area, as already indicated, a new brood w^ould be
established, but not a 16-year brood, because the climatic conditions
over the long period of seventeen years w^ould, and evidently have in
practically every instance, carried these accelerated or, conversely,
retarded individuals forward or back to the normal period. There
are, however, a few records wdiich seem to indicate, and particularly
in tin* overlapping territory of the two broods, a variation in the
length of the subterranean period. These reports of 14-year, 15-year,
or l()-year broods have been so very scanty that it has not been possi-
ble to trace them out with any accuracy, but there seems to be no
reason wdiatever for doubting the possibility of swarms which have
actually developed and maintained for a time these intermediate
periods. In the course of years we may get enough of these records
to definitely map some of these variant broods.
31117— No. 71—07 3

34

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.
Future Appearances.

Durint^ the next seventeen years broods of the 17-year and 13-year
races of the periodical Cicada will occur as follows:

Tabic of f II tun appearances.

Your.

17-vt>ar race.

13-year race.

1907....
1908....'
1909;...
1910....'
1911....'
1912....
1913....
1914. ...|
1915....

XV

XVI
XVII

I

II
III

IV
V
VI

Now?....

XIX

Minor....

XX

New?....

XXI

Minor....

XXII

Major....

XXIII

....do....

XXIV

....do....

XXV

....do....

XXVI

Minor....

XXVII

Year. , 17-year race.

13-year race.

Major 1916,..!

Minor i 1917. ..I

....do 1918... I

....do .. 1919...'

Major 1920. ..i

New? I 1921...

No record . . 1922...

Minor ;! 1923...'

New? 1 1924...

Il i

VII

Minor...

XXVIII

VIII

....do...

XXIX

IX

....do...

XXX

X

Major...

XVIII

XI

Minor...

XIX

XII

New?...

XX

XIII

Major . .

XXI

XIV

....do...

XXII

XV

New?...

XXIII

No record.
New?

Do.
Minor.
Major.
Minor.

Do.

Do.
Major.

In this table the large or important broods are designated as
major; the small or scattering broods as minor. In the latter class
the new and often doubtful broods suggested b}^ the writer also fall.
In the case of a few numbers assigned to the 13-year race no records
of occurrence have been reported, but such maj^ be forthcoming at
any time, although it is evident that the breaking up of the 13-year
race into broods has not proceeded to anj^thing like the extent that
it has in the 17 -year race.

It will be noticed that as a rule a 17-year and 13-year race are
associated m the same ^^ear. This is purely accidental, and in point
of fact the same two broods could only come together once in 221
years. The greatest Cicada 3'ear of recent times was 1868, when
Brood X, the largest of the 17-5"ear race, appeared in conjunction
with Brood XIX, the largest of the 13-year race. These two broods
will have their next joint occurrence in the year 2089, when perhaps
the mcreasc of settlement and the changed character of vegetation
and superficial conditions over their respective ranges may have
entirely eliminated them except for stragglers.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

SOURCES OF INIOKMATIO.N.

The records on which are based the present information of the dis-
tribution of the several broods of the periodical Cicada have been the
accumulation of more than two hundred years, and particularly dur-
ing the last fifty years they have assumed a most voluminous char-
acter, and any effort to discuss the subject at all minutely would
expand this publication beyond reasonable limits. It is impossible,
therefore, to detail the evidence which has been used in determining
brood limits or even to summarize the voluminous historical and
chronological records on which this distribution rests. All that is
possible is to continue the plan followed in Bulletin 14 of limiting

GKNKKAL HAX(}K OF SPKCIKS AND HACKS. 35

the rocorxl to a brief ch'scription of \\\c (li(lVi(Mit hioods niul moroly
noting tho ilistrihution hy States niui count i(\s. The daln for tlieso
summaries is the ratlu>r full account ixiv(Mi in UulK^in S, old s(M-i(\s, of
the Division of Kntoniolo<i:y, su|)|)leniente(l, ho\vev(»r, ])y (lie local
studies luadc^ hy (Mitonu)logists and others in various vStates, and |)ar-
ticularly {\\c Nohnninous records obtained by Ihis Bur(>au. collat(>d
and classiiit tl up to 1S!)S l)y ^fr. K. A. Scliwai"/, who liad \o\\<r assisted
1^-ofessor I\il{\v in collect in<x sucli data. Since 189S lliis field of
in(iuirv has Ixmmi undcM- tlu^ char_iz;(^ of iho writer, and a very tliorou^^h-
iXoiuij: (effort lias ])een made to get full and accurate data of the
broods w hich have appeared from year to year. The records for the
important 13-year Brood XXIII, which appeared in 1898, in conjunc-
tion with the 17-year Brood VI, and of Brood X, the largest of all
the 17-year broods, which appeared in 1902, were especially complete
and satisfactory^ and are summarized under the accounts of these
broods. Particularly in later years, nuich exact information as to
local distribution has come from the active cooperation of State
(Mitoinologists, who have often been able to get more detailed and
accurate reports than was possible through the correspondents of this
ofiice. The scant records, indicating perhaps scattering or incipient
broods, covering some of the blanks in the 13 and 17 year series, are
introduced in their proper order for future confirmation or rejection.
The records obtained by the Department of Agriculture, covering
nearly thirty years, have become very voluminous, and during the
last few years an effort has been made to go over all of these records
and transfer the unportant information to index cards, and all the
later records are being kept on such cards. It is expected also, as
time ofl'ers, to incorporate in this record all the data from experi-
ment station bulletins and other printed records. Ultimately, there-
ioi\\ we shall have a classified card record which will be easily avail-
a])le for examination and study and which will assist greatly in estab-
lishing brood limits and determining the status of new reports.

THE (iEXEKAL KANGE OF THE SPECIES AND OF THE TWO RACES.

Taking all the different broods together, this Cicada is known to
occur pretty generally within the United States east of the one
hundredth meridian and northward of latitude 30° — in other words,
east of central Kansas and north of northern Florida. No broods
have been found in northern New England except a doubtful record
in Vermont, nor west of the Mississippi above Iowa. The State of
Rhode Island, in which the Cicada was long l)elieved to be absent,
proved to harbor a small Vjrood, as discovered in 1903 (Brood XI).
The most eastward occurrences are the swarms occurring in Barn-
stable County, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and on the island of Marthas
Vineyard. No colonies have been foimd on the peninsula of Florida,

36

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

although the Cicada occurs in the nortli western portion of the State.
The western records reported in Bulletin 14 in Colorado, and doubt-
ful occurrences along the northern slope of the Big Horn Mountains
of western Wyoming and Montana, have been shown, with very little
doubt, to belong to another species of Cicada (Tihicen cruentlfem
\J[\\. and allies), very possibly also similarly periodic in reappearance.
The territory covered by the periodical Cicada is graphically illus-
trated by the two maps showing the range of the 13-year and the
17-year races, respectively (figs. 2 and 3). A brief examination of
these maps develops the very interesting and suggestive fact that if
superimposed the areas occupied by the two races would, in a gen-

FlG.

-Map showing distribution of the broods of tlu' Li-year ran

eral way, lit together along their adjoining sides. This was to have
IxHMi expected, but one would hardly have predicted the notal)le
northern extension of the 13-year race in Missouri and Illinois in the
Mississippi Valley, following, however, in an exaggerated way, the
isothermal lines of this region. The extension northward of the 13-
year race very greatly exceeds the limits of the Lower Austral zone,
as marked on ^lerriam's map, and if this insect were taken as a basis
this zone would have to be very greatly extended northward in the
two States named. With this important exception, the 13-year race
is confined pretty closely to the Lower Austral and the 17-year race
covers the l^pper Austral, with large extensions northward into the

GENKIiAI. I!AN(iK OK SI'KCIKS AND KACKS.

37

Transition /oiuv 'V]\c ox (Mlnppin^^ of the two I'accs, discussed else-
where, is well illiist i';i1(m1 hy llie-^e Iwo maps.

The rani^(^ of (lie ilidi\idil;d broods is mulonhtedly iniieli LTi'ealei-
than th(^ limits now assi^iuMl. since tli(> i(>coi'(ls until recent \ears
have l)(>en lai-*x<'ly l>ased on notal)le and d(Mise swai'ins and liaxc
rarely takcMi into account t li(> scat terini^- indixiduals. w liicli undoubt-
edly (*xt(Mi(l ov(M' a nnicli ij:r(>ater t(>ri-itory and usually pass umio-
ticed. The \(M-y car(d"ul it^cords s(>cur(>d of the hi'oods, includinii: and
snhse(|U(Mit to 1S!)S, hax'e shown nuich of this seattcM'ini^ occurrence
beyond th(> d(Mis(M" brood limits, as will b(> s(>en in th(> maps illus-
trating- th(>se broods. This indicatt^s that tlu^ l)r(>akinLr up of the

Fig. 3.— Miij) showing (listriljution of the broods of tlic 17-ycar raco.

Cicada has already gone ninch fartlier than was hitherto snpposed,
and points to the ultimate disappearance of great hroods as such
and their replacement as scattering individuals every year. The dis-
appearance of the great hroods, however, is not to he anticipated
in the very near future, and may not come ahout for a thousand or
even several thousand 3^ears. This is shown by the fact that the
hroods first seen by the early colonists in New England on Cape
Cod, at Plymouth, and on Marthas Vineyard are, as elsewhere noted,
still practically unreduced in mnnlxMs and make just as startling an
impression as ever. This is due to the fact that much woodland
remains undisturbed in these ]ocaliti<'s. In other ])laecs. where* tln^
woods have been largcdy removed as the result of settlement, the
Cicada has corresjxmdingly disappeared.

38 THE PERIODICAL CICADA,

THE RAXGE OF THE WELL-ESTABLISHED BROODS, TAKEN IN NUMERICAL

ORDER.

In the following description of the broods they are taken up in
their numerical order — first, the 17-year broods, I to XVII, and then
the 13-year broods, XVIII to XXX; that is, as many of the latter
as have definite records. The chronological order of the broods, show-
ing the broods of the two races which occur jointly in the same year,
is indicated in the table on page 34, This arrangement, rather
than a chronological one, is adopted for the reason that any chrono-
logical arrangement in the course of a few years becomes obsolete,
and for the same reason individual mai:>s of the broods have been
made, rather than joining in one map the two broods that may hap-
pen to occur together on each of the next thirteen or seventeen years.
The maps of important broods which have been recently more care-
fully studied have been entirely revised, and the importance of the
records has been indicated by the size of the dots, the large dots
representing counties in which the brood occurred in one or more
dense characteristic swarms and the small dots, records of scatter-
ing occurrence or of doubtful validity. These same conditions are
more accurately shown in the State and county records, as described
under each brood. Such indications will be secured for all the broods
in course of time, and will give a much more accurate picture of
actual conditions than the old system of uniform dots for all records.
The maps of broods which have not been recently studied have also
been reengraved because of the discovery of new records — in some
cases few in number, in other cases of considerable amount.

Broods of the Seventeen -Year' Face.
Brood I — Septendecim — 1910. (Fig. 4.)

Brood I is the first of the series of well-authenticated broods of
the 17-3^ear race, and its main swarms occupy the territory immedi-
ately west of the more important Brood II, which follow^s the 3^ear
after. It includes also widely separated s^varms extending west into
Kansas. It was established originally on data given by Dr. Gideon B.
Smith, but its distribution is now more defuiitely recorded as a result
of the study given it in 1893 by Professor Riley and of records which
have come to this Bureau in connection mth the study of other
broods since that time. Several new counties for West Mrginia
were added by Doctor Hopkins in Bulletin 68, West Virginia Experi-
ment Station (1900).

The doubtful records prior to 1893 were those relating to the occur-
rence of tliis l)rood hi Kansas and Colorado. The localities in Kansas
received doubtful ccmfirmation in 1893. The Colorado localities
remained uuvei-ified, althoiii::h the district mentioned was visited

HKOOI) II — SKl'TKNDKCrM — l!MI

39

and special sc^nrch \\ as made for cNidiMicc of ( he inx'ct . I 'ndoiildc*!!
tho Colorado occiirnMicc relates to some other and |)i*ol)al)lv also
periodic sjXM'ies, such as that rej^orted for another l)rood at l>oidder
(\)lo. (X\'T), and for Bi-ood \'l in Montana.

The (listril)ut ion. hv States and ct)unties, follows:

DisTinci' OF CoLiMiJiA. Noll li of Washington.

Ii.i.iNOis. — Madison(?).

Indiana. — Knox, Posoy, Sullivan.

Kansas. — Dickinson, Leavenworth.

Kkntccky. — Trimble.

Makylani). — Prinec (T(M)ru:(\ south half of St. ^farv.

Kii,. 4.— Map showing liistrihutinii of Brood 1, 1910.

North Carolina. — From Raleigh, Wake Count y, to northern line of State; ( "alxu'rus,
Davie, Iredell, Rowan, Surry, Yadkin.

Pexxsylvania. — Adams, Cumberland, Franklin.

Virginia. — From Petersburg, Dinwiddle County, to southern line of State; Bed-
ford, King William, New Kent, Rockbridge; valley from Potomar- to T<'nn<'-^>^<-«- and
North Carolina boundary.

West Virginia. — Grant, Hardy, Pendl(»ton. Randolph.

P.uoon II — '^rpfnirjrrim — 1911. (Fig. .5.)

This brood occupies, for the most part, territory immediately east
of Brood I, and is one of the best recorded of the broods, since its
almost exclusively eastern ran<j:e brinus it in the iinnie(hate \'icinitv

40

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

of the large towns and more densely ])oj)ulate(l districts of the Atlantic
seaboard.

Fitch described its limits as his Brood No. 2, Walsh-Riley as Brood
VIII, and Rile}^ as his Brood XII. It has been reported hi Con-
necticut regularly every seventeen j^ears since 1724, and in New
Jersey since 1775, if not earlier, and almost equally long records of
it in other States have been made.

On the occasion of its last appearance, in 1894, its distribution in
New Jersey was very carefully studied by Prof. J. B. Smith, confirm-
injr its occurrence in everv count v in that State, and in New York

Fig. 5. —Map showing distribution of Brood II, 1911.

similar studies were made by Dr. J. A. Lintner. The Bureau also
received a vast number of reports from these and other States in
answer to a circular prepared by Professor Riley and mailed in May,
1894. Some of the southern records obtained in 1894 are doubtful,
and this applies especially to the localities in North Carolina, because
of the occurrence that year also of Brood XIX of the 13-year race.

The distril)ution as listed below is based on the old records given in
tJH^ circular cited, with sucli additions and corrections as the re})orts of
appearance in 1894 made necessary.

The (listril)ution, by States and counties, is as follows:

CoNNECTicrT.— Fiiiiiield, Hartford, T,it(hli(l(l. Middlesex, New Haven.
District ok Colcmhia. — Throuijhoiit.

nRi>oD TIT — ski'tT';ni)I':cim — \'.n:

4]

Indiana. — Dcarlxxii, I'osryi '!).

Maryland. Aiuh' Aruiulcl, CaKfil. riuulcs. rriiicc (Icor^'c, St. .Mary.

MicHHJAN. — Kalaina/.oo.

New Jeuskv. — Entirr Siatf.

Nknv ^'()KK. -.\ll)any, Coliiinhia, I)iit('h(\ss, Greene Oiaiiirc. I'uiiiam. Keii>s(la(r,
Rockland. Saratoga, Ulster. \\'a.>^liington, Westchester, and on Siabii l>lanil ami Loii^
Island.

NouTH Taudlina. — Berti(>(?\ Davie(?), Forsyth(?), Guilford. Orange, Pxii(kin<^-
luim. Kowan. Stokes, Surry. \Vake(?), Warren(?), Yadkin(?).

Pennsylvania. — Berks, Bucks, Chester, Dauphin, Delaware, Lancaster, Lebanon,
Lehigh. Montgomery, Northampton, Philadelphia, Pike. Potter, Schuylkill. Wyoming.

\'iK(;iMA. All)eniarl(\ Alexandria, .\ndiersl, Ai)j)()nial tox, I'edlord. 1 >uckiiii:liain.

¥lG. G.— Map showing distribution of Brood III, 1"J12.

Campbell, Caroline, Charlotte, Culpeper, Fairfax, Fauquier, Fluvanna, Goochland,
Hanover, Henrico, James City, Loudoun, Louisa, Lunenburg, ^ladison, Page, Pitt-
sylvania, Powhatan, Prince Edward, Rappahannock, Spottsylvania. Stafford.
West Virginia. — Brooke(?).

Brood Ul—SrptfnH('nm—^9^2. (Fig. 6.)

This brood, described by Walsh-Riley as Brood IX (XIII of Kiley)
is one of the more important of the West(>rn 17-year l)roods, its
most compact ])ody lyin<r in tlio States of Iowa and Missouri. It is
closely allied in distri])iiti(^n to Brood 1\', hut .shows little relation-
ship with Brood 11. Records are <^iv(>ii hy Dr. G. B. Smith in both
Iowa and Illinois in 1844, and it has Ix-en regularly recorded since,

42

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

over at least a portion of its range. The Iowa distribution of the
brood was carefully studied by Professor Bessey in 1S78.

The range of the brood as given below is based on the published
records, together with a number of additional localities collected from
the correspondence of the Bureau.

The distribution, by States and counties, is as follows:

Illinois. — Champaign, Fulton, Hancock, McDonough, Mason, Warren.

Iowa. — Adair, Adams, Audubon, Boone, Cass, Dallas, Davis, Decatur, Des Moines,
Greene, Hamilton, Henry, Iowa, Jasper, Jefferson, Johnson, Keokuk, Louisa, Mad-
ison, Mahaska, Marion, Marshall, Monroe, Muscatine, Polk, Poweshiek, Ringgold.
Scott, Story, Taylor, Union, Van Buren, AVapello. Warren, Wayne, Webster.

Fig.

-Map showing distribution of Brood IV, 1913.

Missouri. — Bates, Buchanan, Clark (?), Grundy, Henry, Johnson. Knox (?),
Lewis (?), Macon (?). Marion (?), Monroe (?), Putnam, Ralls (?), Randolph (?), Schuy-
ler (?), Scotland (?), Shelby.

Nebraska. — Johnson.

Ohio. — Champaign.

West Virginia. — Monongalia.

Brood lY—Sepfnulccim—im^. (Fig. 7.)

This brood, described l)y AVal.sli-Kiley as Brood X (Riley XIV)
succeeds Brood III by one year, and in the main a]^])ears to be a
southwestern extension of the latter, covering a portion of south-
western Iowa, eastern Kansas, and Indian Territory, with detached
localities in Mi.^souri and other States. Its oriirinal connection with

BROOD V SEPTENDECTM— -l!n4. 43

Brood III is appaivntlv well shown hy the adjoininii; or ox ('ii:i|)|)iiiLC
territory oceiipicMJ hy \\\v two hroods, toilet hei- witli the fact of their
separation hy a single yeai'.

This brood was well recoi'ilcMl in IS?!), th(* data heinix |)id)hsii(Ml h\-
Professor l^ilev in Bnlletin S. old series, of the Dixision of ICnlo-
molog}'. A nund)er of achlitional records were ohtained at its last
aj)pearanee in 1896, and re})orts have hcuMi received since tlie j)ul)lica-
tion of Bidletin 14 adding five new eonnties in northwestern Missoin-i.

The distribution of the brood as now determined is as follows:

Arkansas. Ilcinpstead (?).

IxDiAX Tkukitoky. — Miiscogcc, Tulsa.

Iowa. — Adams, Cass, Dallas, 'Fremont , Mills. M(>iitu;()in('ry, Vi\^(\ PdllawaMaiiiic.
Taylor.

Kansas. — Alien, B<)iirl)on, Chase, Coffey, Douglas. Greenwood , .lackson. Johnson,
Labette, Lyon. Marion, Morris, Osage, Pottawatomie, Wabaunsee, \A'ilson, Woodson,
Wyandotte.

Missouri. — Barton. Buchanan, Caldwell, Dekalb. C.rundy, Henry, llolt, Jack-
son, Johnson, Lafayette, Mercer, Ray, Saline, Vernjjn.

Nebraska. — Otoe.

Texas. — Cooke, Denton, Fannin, Kaufman, Wise.

Brood Y— Septendedrn— 1914. (Fig. 8.)

Brood V covers in the main a rather compact territory and does not
connect directly with preceding broods, except possibly throutrh
Brood VI, joining the following important series of broods of the
Alleghany region. Brood Y was reported from Ohio as early as 1795.
Fitch described it as Brood 5, Walsh-Riley as Brood XI, and Riley
as Brood XV.

The limits of this brood as known prior to 1897, the date of its last
appearance, were given by Mr. Schwarz in Circular No. 22 of this
Bureau. In 1S97 its distribution in Ohio w^as very carefully studied
and ma])])ed by Professor Webster and in West Virginia b}^ Professor
Hopkins. The distribution. as listed below is based on the above in-
formation, together with numerous records which have since been
obtained by this Bureau in the investigation of this and other broods.

The distribution, by State and counties, of this brood as now known
is as follows:

Ohio. — Ashland, Athens, Belmont, Carroll, Columbiana, Coshocton, Craw^ford, Cuya-
hoga, Delaware. Erie, Fairfield. Franklin, Gallia. Geauga. Guernsey, Harrison, Hock-
ing. Holmes. Huron, Jackson, Jefferson, Knox, Lake, Licking. I.orain, Mahoning.
Medina, Meigs. Monroe, Morgan, Muskingum, Noble. Bcny. Pickaway, Pike,
Portage. Richland, Ro.ss. Sandu.sky, Sciolo. Seneca, Stark, Suniinit. Tuscarawas,
Vinton, Wa.'^hington, Wayne.

Pennsylvania. — Fayette, Greene, Washington.

Virginia. — Augusta, Caroline, Highland(?). Slien:in<lo:)li.

West Viroinia. — Barbour, Boone, Braxton, i'.rookc. t ;illioiin. ('lay. Doddridge.
Favette. Gilmer. Grant. Greenl)rier( ".'). TIan<<i(k. Ilardw ilunison, Jackson, Kana-

44

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

whu, Lcwit;. Marion, Munshall, Mason, Mineral. Monongalia, Nicholas, Ohio, Pleas-
ants, Pocahontas, Preston, Putnam, Randolph, Ritchie, Roane, Sunimers(?), Taylor,
Tucker. Tyler. I^shur, Wayne. Webster. Wet/el. Wirt. Wood.

liiiooD VI — Septemleciin — 1915. (Fig. 0.)

This is an unimportant scattering brood designated as Xo. 7 by
Fitch, XII by Walsh-Riley, and XVII by Riley. It is difficult to
assign any ver}^ pointed relationship for this brood, either with pre-
ceding or following broods, unless one adopts the suggestion made by
Prof. W. E. Castle that it represents a relatively old or played-out
brood, and may thus be considered the parent of Broods V and VII,

Fig. 8. — Map showing distribution of Brood V, 1914.

the former the offshoot b}^ acceleration and the latter by retardation
of development. (See pp. 28-29.) As stated elsewhere, however, it is
more likely to be an assemblage of swarms of diverse origin.

This brood, while not an important one, covers a much wider ter-
ritory than any of the other 17-year broods. With the exception,
however, of the two extremes of its distribution in the Northwest
and the vSoutheast, respectively, the records are of scattering indi-
viduals, in many localities only a few specimens being observed. To
illustrate this graphically on the accompanying map (fig. 9), the
small dots indicate^ localities where only a few .specimens were
observed or ca})tiired or a doubtful record and the large dots localities

/

HROOt) VI SKl'TENDKriM \»]r,.

45

represented by oih^ or inon^ (1(M1s(» swarms, sucli as arc ordinarih-
charactenstic of tlu* species. Some of lli(\se rcM-ords of scat teriiiii;
occurron('(^ may l)c hasi^l on stra^^j^liM's from precediiii: hroods or
accelerat(Ml indi\idiials from followinij^ hi-oods and tlicrefore ma\ not
mean more tliaii incipicMit swarms. Many of \]\v rccoi-ds wci-e scciire<l
in 1S9S, Nslien a \(M"y carefid can\ass of {he w hole Cicada rc^^ion was
m;id(^ i)y this Bureau willi the assistance of the wState entomolo«^ists.
Tlie reports o])tain(Ml in 1S!)S, if they may be vvVwd upon, <>.\tend
tlie raiiii^e of th(^ jxM'iodical Cica(hi in Wisccmsin and Miclii^^an mucli
fartlier north than any of tlie ohl records. The h)caHties assi<^ne(l
to this brood in North Carolina. South Carolina, and Ceoriria, and in

Fig. 9. Map .sliowiiig dislribulioii

eastern Kentucky and Tennessee are, in the main, in counties in tlie
elevated mountainous district, and the correctness of the reference
to this brood is esta})lishe(l by earlier records as \v(dl as indicated by
the elevation.

Reports of tlie occurrence of this l)r()0(l in ^h)ntana were s(>nt in by
Mr. E. V. Wilcox, with the statement that the insect occurred in
small numbers in the counties of Chouteau, Flathead, Gallatin, and
Missoula, and that in the latter county some damage was done to
young apple trees. This report w^as published in Bulletin bS of this
Bureau, but doubts arose afterwards in the mind of the writer as to
the correctness of the determination of the Cicada, as the more

46 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

recently acquired knowledge of the existence of another periodical
species in the northwestern United States threw some doubt on this
reference, and an examination of collected material from that region
indicates that the species referred to is Tibicen cruentifera Uhl.,
which apparently is also periodic and has other habits closely
resem})ling septendecim .

The records of distribution given below are as published in Bulletin
IS of this Bureau, with the exception of West Virginia, where a good
many counties have been added from Doctor Hopkins's Bulletin 68
and from later records secured b}^ him. The starred counties indi-
cate the occurrence of the Cicada in one or more characteristic dense
swarms; the italicized counties are confirmations of old records, and
the counties inclosed in parentheses are old records not reported in
1898. The distribution, by States and counties, follows:

Delaware. — Xewcastlo.

District of Columbia. — Several localities.

Georcia. — Dade,* Elbert, Floyd, Habersham,* Hall,* Paulding, Rabun,* Spalding,
A\Tiite.

Illinois. — Dewitt,* Douglas, Knox, McLean, Montgomerj^ Scott, Shelby,* Ver-
milion.

Indiana. — Boone, Brown, CaiToll, Grant, Johnson, Laporte, Wells.

Kentucky. — Letcher.*

Maryland. — Carroll, Cecil, ^Montgomery, Prince George, Washington.

Michigan. — Barry, (Cass?), Chippewa, Genesee,* Houghton,* Kent(?), Macomb(?).
Newaygo(?), Ogemaw(?), Otsego,* Shiawassee,* Washtenaw.

New Jersey. — Bergen, Cumljerland, Essex, Hudson, Hunterdon, Mercer, Middlesex,
Morris, Passaic, Somerset, Union.

New York. — Greene, New York, Richmond, Schenectady, (Westchester).

North Carolina. — Alexander,* Bladen, Buncombe, Burke,* Cabarrus, Caldwell,*
Catawba,* Henderson,* Iredell, Lincoln,* McDowell,* Macon,* Montgomery,
Moore, Pender,* Polk,* Randolph(?), Rutherford, Swain,* Transylvania,*
Union,* Washington (?), Wilkes.*

Ohio. — (Ashtabula), Carroll, Champaign, Columbiana, Delaware, Madison, Mahoning,
-Montgomery, Morrow, Pickaway, Shelby, (Summit?), L^nion, (Vinton?).

Pennsylvania. — Bucks, (Dauphin), (Lancaster), Montgomery, (Northampton and
adjoining counties), (Philadelphia), Westmoreland.

South Carolina. — Oconee.*

Tennessee. — Bradley, Greene, Hamilton, Jefferson, Knox, Meigs, Polk, Sullivan.

Virginia. — Charlotte, Chesterfield, Fairfax, Powhatan, Prince Edward, (Smyth*.

\\'est Virginia. — Berkeley, Brooke, Clay, Fayette, Grant, Hampshire, Hancock,
Hardy, Jeffei-son, Marshall, Mineral, Monongalia, Monroe, Morgan, Ohio, Pendle-
ton, Pocahontas, Preston, Raleigh, Tucker, Tyler, Webster.

Wisconsin. — Burnett,* Columbia, Crawford, Dane,* Fond du Lac, Green Lake,* (La
Crosse), Marquette,* Sauk,* Sawyer, Washburn, Waushara.*

Brood YU—Septe)ulecim—191Q. (Fig. 10.)

This brood was founded b}^ Professor Riley in 1869 on Doctor
vSmith's recjister, in which it is recorded from 1797 to 1848 as occurring
in certain counties in western New York. As indicated elsew^here,

^ HROOD Vlir SKPTENDECIM 191T.

47

this ])r()()(l is not vorv important and is (li^■i(lo(l into two sections hy
tJK^ following: brood. A^III.

Tlic confirniations of \]\c occurrcMicc of lliis hrood in New York in
later years are rc^ported in Bulletin No. S, old seri(\s, l)i\ision of
luitoniolo^xy- 1 1h' locali(i(vs in Pennsylvauiu and AVest ^'irl!;iniJl are
hased on lat(>r l)i\isional rcM-ords.

The distribution, by States and counties, is as follows:

Xkw Vohk. Cayu^'a, l,i\ in^sfoii, Madison, Monroe, ( )noii(la.ua, ( )nlario, Wyoinin^'.
Van-s.
I'ennsylv.wia. — AUogheny, ^^■ashino;(o^.
West Virginia. — Summers?.

Fig. 10.— Map showing distribution of Brood \'J 1, IDlti.
Brood YlU—Seplendeciin— 1917. (Fig. 11.)

This is Fitch's second brood wliicli he described as oceurrini: in
western New York, western Pennsylvania, and eastern Oliio, and is
ikood XIV of Walsh-Riley, and XX of liiley. Dr. G. B. Sniitli also
gives valuable data relative to its appearance and distribution.

It is one of the smaller broods and did not attract much attention
on its appearance in 1883, but records of a num])er of additional
swarms were obtained on the occasion of its appearance in 1900.
The main territory covered b}^ it is a rather compact one, Mng hi
western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio, and the panhandle of AVest Vir-
ginia. The swarms in the area thus included probably originated

48

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

by retardation from Brood VII, o\nng to mountain conditions as
affecting temperature.

The widely separated swarm occurring on Marthas Vineyard has
exceptional interest on account of the abundance of the insect and
its extreme eastern location. This swarm has })een well recorded
since the time of Harris, and in 1900, when it last appeared, was
reported ])y Prof. H. T. Fernald as being as abundant as ever.

Of the other scattering swarms the ones in western New York and
in northern Illinois and in South Carolina are old records but ex-
tremely doubtful, and possibly based on confusion of some annual
species of Cicada with the periodical species. Xo confirmations of

Fig. U. — Map showing distribution of Brood \"III. 1017.

these records were obtained in 1900. New records were, however,
obtained for New Jerse}^, Maryland, and North Carolina considera])ly
away from the main body of the brood and very possibly having a
different origin. None of the records in these three States represents
important swarms, but merely scattering individuals. Some new
records were obtained also in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia,
which, however, fall in with, the general range of the main body of the
brood.

The county indications in the list below are as with other recently
studied broods, i. e., the star (*) means occurrence in swarms; italics,
conffrmation of old records; and parentheses (), failure to secure such

BKOOI) IX SErTKNDKCnM IKlS,

49

confirination. Hie lari^(^ dots on tho inaj) iiidicjilc stjirrod counties
and tlic small on(vs douhti'nl nn'ords or scatteHMJ pnvscMico.
'V\\o (listril)Ution, hy States and count i(vs, is as follows:

Illinois. — (Whiti'sido) (?).
Maryland. — Ilarf^rd.

Massachusetts. — Dukes* {}f(jr(h(is ]'itia/(ml).
New Jersey. — Essex.
New York. — (Chautauqua) (?).
North Carolina. — Mooro (?).

Ohio. — Belmont, Carroll * Cohnnbicuin* Ilamilldii, JclJ'crson* ^f(lhonin(J * Voria^o*
Stark.* 'rniiiibi(ll.*

Pknnsylvama. -Allctilu'uv. Arnislrotuf* Bcarcrr Buthr* ('(im}>ri<i* Clarion*

Vh.. 12. Map showing distribution of IJrood IX, liiis.

Crawfonl. Fayette, (Forest), Jliintingdon, Indiana * (Jefferson), Lawrence,* Mercer*
(Snyder j, Venango* Washingfon* \\'('stn)iir(laii<l.

South Carolina. — Harnwell ('!).

We.st Vhuiinia. — Brooke,* Hancock,* (Marshall), Ohio.

' WnniiDlX—SepteiuIecim—ldiS. (Fig. 12.)

In the main this })rood (XV Walsh-Ililoy, XX I Jviley) covors a
rather eompact territory, extcndin*^ fioin the soutliern ])art of West
X'iririnia across Virginia into North Carohna, and is tlie soutliern
extension of Brood VIII one year retarded. Some widely separated
swarms have been re]:)orted from Ohio and one from northern Vir-
31117— No. 71—07 4

50 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

ginia, and one or two in northcni West Virginia, but ir the main these
are {l()u])tfiil records or unimportant, and may possibly not ])e con-
nected in origin witli the swarms occurring in the main territory of the
brood. Since the pubhcation of Bulletin 14 several additional coun-
ties have been reported for Virginia and West Virginia, the new
records for the latter State l)eing chiefly from a very carefid survey
made by Doctor Hopkins in 1901. Equally careful search would
doubtless show for adjoining States the wide scattering occurrence
which Doctor Hopkins has found in West Virginia. The unimportant
records are indicated on the map by the small dots.

The occurrence of a swarm on Marthas Vineyard in 1833 is recorded
b}^ Doctor Harris, but the records of subsequent appearances of this
swarm have shown the date mentioned to be unquestionably an error
for 1832, which refers this swarm to Brood VIH.

The distribution, by States and counties, is as follows : "

North Carolina. — Alleghany * (Wilkes*).

Ohio. — Cuyahoga, Madison?, (Medina?).

Virginia. 6 — Bland* Buchanan,* Carroll,* (Craig),* Floyd,* Franklin* (Giles),*
(Grayson),* (Henry),* Lee,* (Loudoun), (Montgomery),* Patrick,* (Pulaski),*
(Roanoke),* Smyth* Wythe.*

West Virginia. — Barbour, Berkeley, Boone,* Braxton,* Clay,* Fayette,* Green-
brier * Hampshire, Hardy, Harrison, Jackson, Jefferson, Kanawha, Logan, Marshall,
Mason, Mercer,* Monongalia, Monroe* Nicholas,* Pleasants, Pocahontas,* Preston,*
Putnam, Raleigh * Randolph,* Roane, Summers * Tucker, Tyler, L"^pshur, Webster,
Wetzel, Wood, Wyoming.*

Brood X—Septendecim— 1919. (Fig. 13.)

This is the great 17-year brood occurring over the main areas
covered by it in numerous dense swarms and equaling, if not exceeding
in importance the largest of the 13-3'ear broods, namely, Brood XIX.
It is Brood Xo. 4 of Fitch, XVI of Walsh-Riley, and XXII of Riley.
It has been well recorded, particularly^ in the East, from 1715 to 1902,
the date of its last appearance. It so happened, however, that on
each of the years (1868 and 1885) when it was especially studied
prior to 1902 it appeared in conjunction with an ini])ortant 13-year
brood, and as the territories of the two races overlap, there has always
been some doubt as to the correctness of the references of swarms in
such overlapping regions. In 1868, when it was studied carefidly by
Walsli and Rile}", it was in conjunction with the largest of the 13-year
broods, namely. Brood XIX. In 1885 it was in conjunction with the
second largest of the 13-year broods, namely, Brood XXIII. The

o County names in italics are confirmations of old records, names in parentheses
are old records unconfirmed, and starred names indicate occurrence in swarms.

& The old records for Virginia not confirmed specifically in 1901 are in the midst of
counties with large swarms and were confirmed in a general report covering the south-
western part of the State.

BROOD X SKl'TENDEriM lilli).

51

yoar 1002 was not niark(Ml l)y \]\o vovuvvcuvo of any 1.'>-V(\'ir l)r()()(l.
and Ikmu'c \hv nn-ords for tliat year, for (lie (irs( lime, could |)i-acli-
cally all \)0 assii^iUMl without (Hicstiou to Brood X. it liad hccn
anticipatcul by the writer and otlicrs that many of the records in
middle and soutluM'n lUinois. for example, and nortliern Missouri,
which luid heen refiM-rcnl to tlu* two lari^e l.S-ycMir ])i-oo(ls, mii^ht pos-
sibly heloni^: to Brood X of the 17-year race. Kather to our sur|)rise,
liowever, the old limits of distribution for the tluve broods in (piestion
seem to i)e pretty dc^linitely conlirmcMl.

A'ery thoroui^;]! ])lans were made early in 1902 to have the entire
territory over whicli tlie ])rood was ex])ect(Ml fully and ade(|nat(>l\-

i;;. -Ma]) showing d

1 X, I'.il'.

reported, an<l the responses received by this Bureau wvvc numei-ous
and satisfactory for practically the whole area covered b\ the brood.
In addition to this several of the entomologists of the different States
witliin tlie range of the })rood carried on independent investiirations.
and tlic records obtained V)y them, most of which have been pub-
lished sinc(\ liave been incorporated with the reports received by this
Bureau. All of the records agree in showin^i: the substantial accuracy
of the limits of this brood as hitherto platted. The State records
available and used in the followini; list of States and counties, so far
as they represent counties new to our records, are those reported by
Pettit for Michigan, Smith for New Jersey, Sanderson for Delaware,

52 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Garinan for Kentucky, (^iiaiiitance for Maryland. Felt for New York,
and Hopkins for West A'ir<rinia.

Leaving out the numerous scatterino: colonies the brood occupies
tliree important regions: (1) An eastern region, covering Long Island,
New Jersey, southeastern Pennsylvania, northern West Virginia and
Virginia, and most of Delaware and ^laryland; (2) a southern region,
covering the Lower Alleghanies in northern Georgia, Tennessee, and
North Carolina; and (3) a middle western region, covering western
Ohio, southern Michigan, all of Indiana, except the lake shore
(Webster), and the eastern line of Illinois. ]\Iany reports of scatter-
ing occurrence^ or of chance individuals connect these three regions
and also extend the range westward as far as the Missouri River
(Iowa) and northward into New York and Vermont and possibly
Massachusetts. But in the main the three regions designated include
the abundant appearance of the brood in dense swarms.

'\Miere conditions had remained at all favorable there was very
little falling off in abundance of the Cicada at the time of its last
appearance in 1902. In the District of Columbia, where the writer
personall}" observed the insect, emergence began with the second week
in May and was a fairly prolonged one, extending over three or four
weeks. '^ In this brood the small variety, cassinii, is perhaps better
represented than in am" other, and this small variety appeared very
generally in 1902, and in great numbers. The deposition of eggs
began about June 1 and continued with considerable activity until
the middle of this month and was of sufficient amount to kill the
terminal branches of trees, in some cases almost all the outer branches
dying.

A big transplanting of eggs was made from the surrounding forests
of the District to the grounds of the Department, where very few
Cicadas had appeared, and all of them had been destroyed by birds
before any egg laying had been done. This planting was made in the
oak grove on the west side of the grounds, where similar experiments
had formerly been in progress, so as to afford material for study of the
development of the larvse.

The records of distribution given below include all availal)le data.
The starred counties are those in which the Cicada appeared in 1902"
in one or more dense swarms. The italicized counties coniirm older
records, and the counties in parentheses are old records which failed
of confirmation in 1902. This last does not necessarily mean that the
Cicada was absent from these counties, ])ut simply the failure to
receive reports of occurrence. A great many negative re})orts were
received, and, as ])latted on a large study map, coniirmed the accu-
racv of the rauire of this brood as now i2:iven.

o See Proceedings Entomological Society, Washington, Vol. V, 1902, pp. 124-126.

15K(K)1) X— SKi'l'KN'DKCIM- l!ll!>. 53

'rh(> (li>l rihiil ion, hv Sl;il(>s ami coimlic's. follows:

Alabama. -Clcltunit', .hicksoii. JctTi-r.-oii. Muri^Mii. iSi. Churn?!.

DisTRirr OF ('oli.miua.*

Delaware. — (Kont), Newcastle * Sitsscv*

Georgia. — fiani-.s,* Chattoosxa. Dado. Dawson, Fannin. Forsi/llir t Franklin i, ^»7-
mer* Gordon,* Groonc. Ilahcrshani* I fall* Jarkson.* Lincoln, Lintipkiii* Murray,*
Nowton.* (Vli'tliorjH', Piclrus.* Rahini* Cnionr Walker. Walton. Whilc^ Whii li.'l<l,
Wilkc.<.

Illinois. — Alexander, Clark * Crawford * Cunihcrland, (Dcwitt ), Kdcjar* Edwards,
(Gallatin), Hamilton. Hardin, (Iroquois), Jackson, (Kano), Lawrence, Lopm, (Pope),
Saline, Tazewell, Ihiion, VentiiJion* Wabash, White;^' Williamson.

IxniANA. — Ada))!^,* Allen, Barthtdoniew* Benton, lilackford.'^ liootie,"^' Broirn.'''- Car-
roll,* Cass,* Clark,* Clay,* Clinton,* Daviess,- Dearhoni.-' Drntlitr,* Dekalb. ■ Dthi-
ware,* Dubois,* .Elkhart,* Fayette,* Floyd,* Fonnlain,^' Franklin.,'^' Fullnn.'^' Cifison.'^-
Grant,* Greeiu,* Hamilton,* Hancock,* Harrison,* Hendricks,* Henry ,- llownid,"' /hnil-
iiufton,* Jackson,* Jay, Jefferson,* Jennimjs,* Johnson,* Kno.r,* Kosciii.sko;'^ Lake,
Tm parte,* Laurence,* Madison,* 3/ario/i,* Marshall,* Martin,* Miami,* Monroe,* Mont-
gomery,* Moryan,* Noble,* Ohio,* Orange,* Owen,* Parke,* Perry,* Pike,* Porter,*
Posey, Pulaski,* Putnam,* Randolph,* Ripley,* Rush,* St. Joseph,* Scott,* Shelby,*
Spencer,* Starke,* Steuben,* Sullivan,* Switzerland,* Tippecanoe,* Tipton, Union,*
Vanderburg,* Verinilion,* T%o,* Warren,* Warrick,* Washington,* Wayne,* Wells,*
ninte.*

Iowa. — Woodbury.

Kentucky. — Allen, Anderson, Ban-en, Bath, Bell, Boone,* Boyd, Breckinridge,*
Butler, Caldwell, Campbell,* Carroll,* Carter, Casey, Christian, Clay, Clinton, Crit-
tenden, Cumberland, Daviess,* Edmonson, Fayette, Fleming, Franklin, Gallatin,*
Garrard, Grant,* Grayson,* Green, Greenup, Hancock,* Hardin, Harrison,* (Hart),
Henderson. Hickman, Hopkins, Jefferson,* Johnson, Kenton,* Knox, Larue, Laurel,
Lawrence, Lee, Leslie, Letcher, Lewis, Lincoln, Livingston, 3/eLean,* Madison, Magof-
fin, Martin, Meade,* (Mercer), ^lonroe, Nelson, Nicholas, Ohio,* Oldham,* Owen,*
Owsley, Pendleton,* Pifte, Scott, Shelby,* Trigg, Trimble,* Union, Warren, ^^■ash-
ington, Wayne, WY^b.ster, W'hitley, Wolfe.

Maryland. — Allegany,* Anne Arundel,* Baltimore,* Calvert, Caroline, Carroll*
Cecil,* Frederick,* Garrett,* Harford,* Howard,* Kent,* Montgomery,* Prince George,*
Queen Anne, Talbot,* Washington,* Wicomico.

Massachusetts. — (Bristol) (?), W^orcester(?).

Michigan. — (Bany), Branch,* Calhoun,* Csiss,* (Eaton), Genesee,* (Gratiot), Hills-
dale, Ionia, (Jackson), Kalamazoo,* Lake, Lenaivee, (Livingston), Missaukee, (Mon-
roe). Muskegon, Newaygo, Oakland,* Saginaw, St. Clair, St. Joseph,* Van Buren,
Washteyiaw,* (Wayne).

New Jersey. — Burlington,* Camden,* Cumberland,* Gloucester,* Hunterdon,* Mer-
cer,* Middlesex,* Monmouth,* Morris,* Ocean, (Passaic), Salem,* Somerset,* W^arren.*

New York. — Columbia, Kings, (Monroe), Nassau, (Niagara), Ontario, Queens,*
llichmond, Suffolk.*

North Carolina. --Alexander, Alleghany, Burke,* (Caldwell) (?), Catawba, Chero-
kee,* Davidson, Davie,* Lincoln, Stokes, Surry,* (Wake) (?), Wilkes,* Yadkin.*

Ohio.— (Adams), Allen,* Auglaiz(s Butler,* Champaign,* Clark,* (Clonmmi), Clin-
ton, (Columbiana), Crawford,* Dark(%* Delaware,* Fairfield,* Franklin,* Gallia,
Greene,* Hamilton,* Hancock, Huron, Jackson,* Logan,* Lucas,* Madison,* Marion,*
Mercer,* Miami,* Montgomery,* Morrow,* Pickaway,* (Pike), Preble,* Putnam,* (San-
dusky), Seneca,* Shelby,* Union,* Van Wert, Warren,* Wyandot.*

Pennsylvania. — Adams,* Bedford,* Berks,* Blair,* Bucks,* Carbon,* Chester,* Clin-
ton, Columl)ia,* Cumberland,* Dauphin,* Delaware,* Franklin,* Fulton,* Hunting-
don, *Ju7iiata,* Lackawanna,* Lancaster,* Lebanon,* Lehigh,* Luzerne,* Lycoming,

54

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Mercer, Mifflin* Monroe* Montgomery * Montour,* Northampton* Perry * Philadel-
phia* Schuylkill* Snyder * Somerset * Union* York*

Texn'essee. — Benton, Bledsoe, Blount * Bradley, Carroll, Carter, Claiborne, Cum-
berland, Dyer, Gibson, Grainger, Greene,* Hamblen* //a?/n7fon,* Hancock, Hawkins.*
(James(?)), Jefferson,* Johnson* Knox* Loudon* McMinn* Montgomery, Obion,
Polk* Rhea, Roane, Robertson, (Scott), Sevier,* Smith,* (Sullivan), Washington *
Weakley, "White, Williamson.

Vermont. — (Rutland.)

ViUGiNiA. — Alexandria* Augusta, {Carroll), Clarke,* Fairfax,* Fauquier, Frederick,*
Grayson, Lee,* Loudoun,* Orange, Prince William.* Roanoke, (Spottsylvania t.
Warren,* Wise, Wythe.

West Virginia. — Barbour, Berkeley,* Boone, Cabell, Grant,* Greenbrier, Harup-
shire,* Hardy,* Harrison,* Jefferson,* Lincoln, Logan, McDowell. Mason, Mineral *
Mingo, Monroe, Morgan, Ohio, Pocahontas, Preston,* Putnam, Raleigh, Roane
Tucker,* Wayne.

Wisconsin. — Dane, (Sauk).

Fig. 14.— Map showing distribution of Brood XI. 19-0.

Brood XI— Septendecim— 1920. (Fig. 14.)

This is a small brood limited, for the most part, to the valley of the
Coimecticut River in the States of Massachusetts and Connecticut,
w ilh one colony in the vicmity of Fall River separated from the main
swarm. Tt is Brood I of Walsh-Riley and Brood 9 of Fitch, ^vho
rej)()r(s it as havin<=: occurred in LS18 and ISoo. It was recorded also
l)y Di-. (lideon B. Sinitli from 1707 to 1852, and the <z:oiuiineness of
the brood was fully established in 1869, Like most small broods in
settled regions, it is being greatly reduced in numbers, and in 1903

UKOOl) Xll SKI'TKNDKCIM — l!»21. /),')

y\v. l^ritlon n^ports" that li(> was not al)l(' to sccui-c any records for
Connoc'licut, altliouiih special clTort was made to do so tlirouLrli
coiTOspoiulcMice. A personal (>.\aininat ion of the area was, howcxcr,
not inado by th(^ (Mitoniolo^ist , and a clippiniz: from \\\v Hartford
Courant of Juno 0 reports them presenl.

In this yoiw (19().")), however, the first record of the jx'riodical
Cicachi from UliocU^ Ishmd was obtained, no l)roo(l haxinii; j)re\iously
])een reportcnl from this Stat(\ The bite fJames M. St)utb\vi(;k,
curator of the Museum of .Natural History, 1{o<;(M' Williams l^ark,
rej)ort(Ml undcM- datt^ of May 2o that a liviiiii; specimen of the Cicada
was l)rouixht to him tliat day takcMi near the southwcvst corner of
Tiogue l\eservoir, about a mile north of tlio New London turnpike,
an unsettled reji^ion w ith plenty of woods. The specimen was secured
by ^fr. C. K. Ford, of Providence, who re|)()rted tluit tlie cicadas wore
nndvin^ so nuich noise that ho thought they must bo frogs or toatls
having a late spring concert. Mr. Ford says, on the authority of his
mother, that some wore collected there thirty-four years before. This
is a very interesting as well as unoxpoctod record.

Th(» distribution by States and counties is as follows:

(Onnkcticut. — Hart lord.

Massachusetts. — Bristol, Franklin, liani])shire.

Rhode Island. — Providonce.

Brood Xll— Septendecim— 1921. (Fig. 15.)

The records on which this very doubtful new^ brood was based are
given in Bulletui IS, new series, of this Bureau, pages 56, 57. The
oldest record is that of Dr. Gideon B. Smith, who in his manuscript
reports the Cicada as occurring in 1853 in Vinton County, Ohio, and
Jo Daviess County, 111. Neither one of these localities was con-
firmed, either in 1870,. 1887, or 1904. In the latter year the wTiter
made special effort to have records secured if possible, but without
result. Professor Forbes particularly making inquiries for Jo Daviess
County, 111.

The other two records published in Bulletin 18 for this l)rood are
as follows:

Mr. J. R. lUirkc, Milton, ("abcl] ronnly, \V. Va., writingundcr dale of May 22, 1807,
says: "The Cicada is not due Ik if uniil l!)()!: its last visit was in 1887."

Mr. W. S. Herrick, Tlunnian, Allen Counly, hid., writes under date of June 10, LSiJ8,
that "We had the 17-year locust in 1887, if 1 remember correctly." This is also a
doubtful record, and it is possible that ho referred eiiher to Brood XXIT, orrurrin? in
1885, or Brood V, occurring in 1888.

Xo report whatcncr was rocoivod from Mi'. Burke. Mr. Herrick,
under (bite of Se])t(Mnber 1. 1904, ro|)orte(l that he vvont through the
neighborhood where tlio locusts aj)])earo(l in 1SS7, and failed to see

a Report Conn. Exp. Sta. 1903, Part III, p. 214.

56

THE PETUODTCAL CTCADA.

any evidence of the occurrence of the In-ood. lie states, however,
that the}" were quite numerous when they appeared before. The
possibihty here, however, is pretty strong that there is a mistake in
the date.

Some unimportant new records were obtauied in 1904. Mr. S. D.
Nixon found Uving cicadas, May 28, on a horse-chestnut tree in Mount
Ohvet Cemetery, Baltimore, Md. Mr. Robert A. Kemj) reports that
while collecting Lepidoptera in the woods at Catoctin Mountain,
near Braddock, Md., his attention was arrested by the unmistakable
cry of Tihicen septendecim. He was unable to secure the specimen,
which was safely hidden in a dense grove of young chestnuts. He
savs :

Fig. 15.— Map showing distribution of Brood XII, 1921.

I was loath to leave him inasmuch as he gave me a parting "Pharaoh" when I left
him alone in his glory. I have heard during the past week in this same woods several
specimens, and have not yet given up hope of securing one.

Both of these records may relate to belated specimens l)elonging to

reports
and one

Brood X of 1902. Mr. C. II. B()l)bit, of Baltimore, Md
lliat lu^ lieard twenty or thirty in a little ])iece of woods
captured s})ecimen was seen by Doctor Howard.

Tlu^ records of this brood therefore are as follows, a
or uiiimj-xii'taiit :

Ili.inoi.s.^ — Jo Daviess County.

Indi.\na. — Allen County.

11 verv doubtful

lilidOI) XIII - SKl'TKNDKOIM — 1112

57

MAR-iTiAND. — Frcdciick CclinlN ;i

Ohio. — Vinloii County.

West Vikcini.v. — Calx'U ('<'uni\

ul nalliiuot.'.

l>K<)c>i) XI II S(j)l(ii(/(Tliit 1922. ^Fii,'. 1(5.)

Thi.s very compact brood, describcHl by Kitcli as Brood Xo. (>, ])y
Walsh-Kilov as Brood III, and by Kilcy as l^rood \, covers in hir<^c
part a prairie or s|)arsoly woodcnl rc<^ion cxUMidin*^ over ])()rtioiis of
several States in the upper Mississipj)i Vall(\y.

A detached ])r()od was formerly known in Pennsylvania, but seems
not to Inive IxMMi sec^i in Inter V(Mirs. A f(^w in(li\i(hials were re|)orted

Fig. Ki.— Map showing distribution of Brood XI 1 1, lU-'i'.

from two counties in Maryland in 19U.3, and two very doubtful records
(1888) have been found for Kentucky and Virginia. Mr. Hopkins
in his Bulletin 68 gives records indicating possible swarms in Putnam
and Lincoln counties, W. Va. None of these eastern records can have
otJKM' than chance time relation with the main area covered by this
brood.

As the ])eri()(ncal Cicada is limited to forested an^is, the broods
occurring in })rairie districts of northern Illinois and adjoining States
are necessarily much broken and scattered, and J^rood XTII occurs,
therefore, for the most y)art in small colonies in woods bordering
streams. Xo special effort was nnide to get records in I'lOo, and this

58 TITE PERTODTCAL CICADA.

brood therefore rests ])ractically on tlie data secured in earlier years.
Reports came from eleven counties in Illinois — all, however, -included
in the region designated below — and from several of the counties in
other States, where they were expected. The italicized counties are
confirmations of old records.

The distrii)ution by States and counties follows:

Illinois. — All northern countie.-^ from Mercer southeast to Peoria, to Logan, Shelby,
Edgar, including Lee, Dekalb, Dupage, Kane, McLean, Rock Island, etc.

Indiana. — Lake, Laporte, Porter.

Iowa. — Allamakee, Benton, Blackhawk, Bremer, Buchanan, Cedar, Chickasaw,
Clayton, Clinton, Delaware, Dubuque, Fayette, Howard, Iowa, Jackson, Johnson,
Jones, Linn, Louisa, Mitchell(?), Muscatine, Scott, Tama, "\Vinneshiek(?).

Kentucky. — Lincoln.

Maryland. — Baltimore, Frederick.

Michigan. — Berrien, Branch, Cass, Hillsdale, Oakland(?), St. Joseph, Wayne(?).

Pennsylvania. — Lancaster.

Virginia. — Lee.

West Virginia. — Lincoln, Putnam.

Wisconsin. — Crawford, Dane, Grant, Green, Iowa, Jefferson, Lafayette(?), Mil-
waukee, Richland, Rock, Sauk, Walworth, Waukesha.

Brood XIV— -Sepiemfcam— 1923. (Fig. 17.)

This brood, so far as our records go, is the one which was first
observed by the early European colonists on this continent. Two
important areas occur in eastern Massachusetts, one about Plymouth
and the other covering Cape Cod. The Ph^mouth swarm of 1634,
the first after European settlement, was noted by the early Puritans
and is referred tcr in the two earliest published notices of this curious
insect. (See Bibliography.) One of these records gives the definite
date of 1633, but, as shown by the subsequent appearances of the
swarm, this date is probably an error for 1634. Xo published records
have been found of the later appearances prior to 1789, but definite
records have been made of each return since that year. An interest-
ing account of the last appearance (1906) of the Cicada in Plymouth
County is given in a report received from Martha W. Whitmore,
Chiltonville, Plymouth, Mass. The near-by Barnstable colony was
also most abundant last year (1906) all along Cape Cod. As reported
by Miss Grace Avery, of Washington, D. C, the ground along the
coast was covered with the dead bodies and the trees in the forests
w^ere all fired and bro^vn from the egg-layhig of the females.

Prof. H. T. Fernald reports '(letter September 26, 1906) the dis-
tribution in Ph^mouth and Barnstable counties as m the following
towns: Pl^Tiiouth, Wareham, Bourne, Falmouth, Sandwich, Mash-
pee, Barnstable, Yarmouth, and Dennis, being most abundant in
the three first named.

This brood, like Brood VI, covers a very wide range, extending
from Massachusetts westward to Illuiois, witli iin})()rtant groups of

liUoiiI) XIV SKI'I'KNDKrl.M l<li;:t.

59

swarms (^xtcMuliiii:: from PcimsvKaiiia soul liw aid into iioiilicru
Vir<^inia and in tli(' Lower AUcjj^Ikmucs, covering portions of Xoith
Carolina, Teiinosso(\ (i(M)r<^ia, etc., and in {\w Ohio \'all('\ i(>Lri<'n,
C()V(»rin«i: especially southern Ohio, Indiana, central Iventucky. and
western West Virginia..

Brood XI\' has Ixhmi cai'c^fnlly studicnl, notahly so on the occasion
of its ai)j)(>arance in IDOC), when a ^^vvAi many n(>w records u(M(»
ol)tained hy this Bureau and by the entomoloLcists of the scNcral
States included within its rantije.

Important new records w(M'(* scH'ured and kindly snhmitted to this

Fig. 17.— Map showing distribution of Brood XIV, lOL'.'i.

office by Messrs. (iannan, Feriiald, Felt, Sherman, Ilowser, Bentley,
and Ramsay, for, respectively, Kentucky, Massachusetts, New York,
North Carolina, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginia.

The occurrence jointly with this brood in 1906 of the small and
rather unimportant 13-year Brood XVIII leaves some doubt as to
the correct assio^nment of certain swarms in southern Illinois, w(\stern
Kentucky, and Tennessee.

The starred counties indicate the occurrence of the Cicada in on(^
or more characteristic dense swarms; the italicized counties are con-
firmations of old records, and the counties inclosed in parentheses are
old records not reported in 1S9S. The lar<j:e dots on tli(^ maj) (fi*::. 17)

60 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

indicate tlie starred counties and the small dots the unimportant or
doubtful occurrences.

The distribution, by States and counties, is as follows:

District of Columbia. — Throughout.

Georgia. — (Gordon), (Habersham), (Rabun), (Towns), (Union), (White).

Illinois. — (Boone), Grundy(?), Jo Daviess, JohnsonC?), (Lake), (McHenry)
(McLean), (Putnam), (Stephenson), Vermilion, Whiteside,* (Winnebago), Wood-
ford(?).

Indiana. — Boone(?), Brown,* Carroll(?), (Clark), (Clay), (Crawford), (Daviess),
Dearborn, Dubois(?), Floyd, Fountain, (Gibson), Grant, (Greene), Harrison, Jack-
son(?), Johnson, Knox, (Lake), (Lawrence), Monroe, Morgan, Orange, Perry,* (Piko.
(Posey), Putnam, Ripley, Scott, Steuben(?), Sullivan, Tippocanoo, (Vandcrl)urg),
(Vigo), Warrick, Washington, Wayne.

Kentucky. — Adair,* Allen,* Anderson,* Barren, Bath, (Bourbon), Boyd,* Boyle,*
(Breckinridge), Bullitt,* (Carter), Casey,* (Clark), (Clinton), Cumberla7ul,*F.(\mon-
son,* Estill,* (Fayette), (Fleming), Floyd,* (Franklin), Garrard,* Grayson,* Green,
(Greenup), Hancock(?), Hardin,* Harrison, Hart, Henry, (Jackson), (Jefferson),
Jessamine,* Johnson,* Knott,* Knox,* Larue,* Laurel, Lawrence,* Lee,* (Lewis),
Lincoln,* Logan,* (McLean), (Madison), Magoffin,* Martin, Mason, Meade, Menifee,
Mercer, (Metcalfe), Monroe,* (Montgomery), Nelson,* Nicholas,* Owen, Owsley,*
Pendleton,* Perry, Pike,* (Powell), Pulaski,* Rockcastle,* Rowan,* (Russell), Scott,*
Shelby,* Simpson, Taylor,* Trimble,* Warren,* Wayne,* Whitley, Wolfe.

Maryland. — Allegany,* Frederick,* Howard, Montgomery, Prince George, Wash-
ington*

Massachusetts. — Barnstable,* Plymouth*

New Jersey. — Bergen, (Burlington), (Cape May)^ (Gloucester), (Mercer).

New York. — On Long Island* and in Richmond County.

North Carolina. — Buncombe,* Caldwell,* Caswell,* Haywood,* Jackson. McDow-
ell,* Madison,* Mitchell,* Watauga,*- Wilkes,* Yancey.*

Ohio. — Adams,* Auglaize, Brown* Butler,* Clermont,* Clinton,* Columbiana,
Cuyahoga, Delaware, Fayette,* Gallia,* Greene,* Hamilton,* Highland,* Jackson, Lau-
rence,* (Meigs), Pike,* Preble, Ross,* Scioto,* Vinton,* Warren,* Washington.

Pennsylvania. — (Adams), Bediord,* Berks, Blair,* (Center), (Chester), Clearfield,*
Clinton,* (Columbia), Cumberland, Franklin,* (Huntingdon), (Lancaster), Lehigh,
Luzerne,* (Lycoming), (Mifllin), Montour,* Northumberland,* Potter, Snyder*
Schuylkill,* Tioga, Union,* York.

Tennessee. — Anderson, Bledsoe,* Blount,* Campbell, Cannon,* Carter,* Cheat-
ham,* Claiborne,* Clay, Cocke,* Coffee,* Cumberland,* Dekalb,* Fentress,* Frank-
lin,* Grainger,* Greene,* Grundy,* Hancock,* Hawkins,* Johnson,* Macon,* Marion,*
Morgan,* Overton,* Pickett,* Putnam,* Rhea,* Roane, Robertson,* Scott,* Stewart,
Sullivan,* Unicoi,* Union, Warren,* White.*

Virginia. — (Alexandria), Augusta,* Buchanan,* Dickenson,* Fairfax, Frederick,*
Lee,* Nelson, Tazewell,* Wise.*

West Virginia. — Berkeley,* Boone,* Brooke, Cabell,* Doddridge, Fayette,*
Greenbrier, Hampshire,* Hancock, Hardy, Jackson, Jefferson, Kanawha,* Lincoln,*
Logan,* McDowell,* Mason,* Mercer,* Mineral,* Mingo,* Monroe, Morgan,* Pendle-
ton, Pocaliontas, Preston, Putnam,* Raleigh,* Ritchie, Roane, Wayne,* Webster,
Wood,* Wyoming.*

Brood XY—Septendecim~1907. (Fig. 18.)

This is one of the new 17-year broods indicated by the writer in
Bulletin 18 (new series) of this Bureau, and consists of retarded
eastern colonies of Brood XIV. The important colonies of tliis brood

imoon XV SKPTKXDia^IM 1007.

Gl

;iro in Dutclioss juul Sai-atoi^a counties, N. V. All lli(> [-('cords from
bulletin IS anM'cproduccd hclow, \\i( h the cxccplion of tlic icport
from Indian TcM-ritoi'v, which falls distinct ly within tli(> l.'J-Ncar lines.
and has been transferred to J^rood XXIX.

This ])i\)od is re])resentod by t lu^ colony appeai'iiiL!: at TiNoli,
Dutchess County, and (lalway, Saratoi^a County, .\ . V., in dune.
1890, as recorded by Prof. J. A. Lintner in his Seventh U(>|)ort,
paiTCs 297-301. Mr. Davis records the occurrence of scatterin^^
individuals tlu^ same yeai" on Staten Island. In a leltei- of dun(> 2,
1S90, l*i-of. J. B. Smith. \(>w Brunswick, X. d.. ivporls thai tlie

Fit;. IS. -Miip showiii},' distribution of Brood XV, 1907.

periodical Cicada liad ])een taken by several X^ewark (Essex County),
collectors, and had also been observed at Anglesea, Cape May
County.

Another record wliich ])er]ia])s a])plies to this brood is (^iveii by
Mr. I. X. Smith, Scotland Neck, Halifax County, N. C, in letter of
dune 22, 1S85. lie reports that his " lirst recollection of the locust
was about the year 1S;39 or ]S4(), when the whole of the white-oak
lands were filled with them. * * ''= In 1X55 or 1S,^)() they a|)|)ear(Ml
airain. but nothiuii; to compai'c with the period (ii'sl slated. TIk*
locusts were all on the white-oak land and on the Roanoke River and
not on the pine lands." Assuminii: the dates is:^)9 and 1.S.56 to be the
correct ones, this would throw this swarm of Cicadas into Brood XV.

62

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

and if there are any representatives left they should reappear in 1907.
The distribution, l)y States and counties, is as follows:

New Jersey. — Cape May, Essex.

New York. — Dutchess, Richmond, Saratoga.

North Carolina. — Halifax.

Brood X\J—Septendecim—190S. (Fig. 19.)

This old Brood IX of Riley (VII of Walsh-Riley) is a very small
and doubtful one, and represents a few isolated colonies in the
extreme western portion of the range of the species, possibly two
years belated swarms of Brood XIV. It was reported as occur-

FlG. 19.— Map showing distribution of Brood X\l, 11(08.

ring in 1857 in southeastern Nebraska, and a very definite record
for Franklin County, Ark., wliich apparently pertains to tliis brood,
was obtained in 1885. Mr. J. M. Pettigrew, writing under date of
July 1, states that the cicadas were numerous in that county hi May,
1857, and in 1874, doing some injury to small branches of fruit trees,
especially apple. This record falls in the western central part of the
State, and is surrounded by 13-year records, but is at an elevation
of a thousand feet or more and, in view of the defmiteness of the
report, does not seem to be open to doul)t. There is a doubtful
record reporting the Cicada in Lee County, Iowa, in 1874, wliich
seems to belonir to tliis brood.

HKOOI) XVI — SKl'TKNDKCMM— 1!»()H.

68

In Bulletin 14 and older ])iil)li('}iti()ns a western ontposl in Boulder
County, Colo., was r(^j)ort(Ml for tliis brood. 'Phis j-ecord is imdoul)!-
edlv (MToncons, and arises from the confusion of one oi- oilier of (lie
mountain sjXM-ies of Cicada which also ha\-c life cvcles of >e\cral
years and duplicate soniewliat the lial)its of the (^asteiii species.
Prof. C. V. Ciill(^tt(\ in answcM- to an iiupiirv hy the \\iilei\ stales
tliat he does not believe that f<( j)t( ndrciin occurs in Colorado, inasmuch
as lie lias not found a sin^^le exam])le of it in the cours(^ of {]w insect,
collect imr (h)ne tliere l)y himself and students durintr the last sixteen
velars, and he sus])ects that the insect reported is Tihiccn nmosd Say,
\\hicli miirht rea(Hly have been mistaken for septcndcnm.

li,;. JO.— Map showing distribution of Brood XVII, HiO'.'.

The distribution, by wStates and counties, is as follows:

A K K A N s.\s. — l''r;i 1 1 k 1 i n .
Iowa. — Lee ( Vi.
Nebraska. — Iiidianlson.

I'.uooi) Xy\l—SepUndeciw—\m). (Fig. 20.)

11iis brood is a ])recurs()r of Brood 1, and was indicated \)\ the
writer in Bulletin 18 (new series) of this Bureau. It comprises
small or doubtful colonies only. The records (riven in that publica-
tion are reproduced Ixdow without chan^^e except for the addition of
two new localities for \'ir(xinia, one in A])ponuittox County and
the other in the southwestern part of Washington County.

64 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

A very definite record which ma}' coincide with tliis brood is
furnished by Mr. Theodore Pero^ande, of this Bureau, who states that
Mr. Rosseau, of Charlottesville, Albemarle Count}", Va., informed
him that the Cicada was very numerous in that place in 1875. His
informant w^as positive as to the year from its being the one in which
he made a trip to Europe.

Another record is given by Mr. John D. Macpherson, Manassas,
Prince William Count}", Va., in letter of July 3, 1895. He ^\Tites:

I came here on the 23d of June, leaving the Cicada in full song in Washington
(Brood X). Finding none here I made inquiry and was informed that they appeared
in full force in this county (Prince William) in the year 1875. This information I
regard as reliable, the date being fixed as the year following the marriage and arri\'al
of my informant in this county.

^Ir. J. R. Honle}^, of Spanish Oaks, in a report received in 1898,
states that the ''locusts'' appeared in Appomattox County in 1892, and
Mr. A. M. Connell, in a postal of Ma}' 29, 1902, reports their appear-
ance in the southwestern part of Washington County in 1841, 1858,
1875, and 1892. These Virginia swarms are cA-idently precursors
of Brood I, with wliich they are therefore closely allied.

A western extension of this brood seems to be indicated in the
record furnished by H. J. Giddings, Sabula, Jackson County, Iowa.
He writes, ''during last June (1892) the periodical Cicada was quite
common here. * * =5= j thought it was unusual to find them in
such numbers four years after their regular appearance. The last
regular year was 1883." (See Insect Life, Vol. V, p. 200.)

If belonging to the 17-year race, the two records follo^^^.ng should
also be assigned to this brood. Mr. A. J. Julian, Woolleys Ford,
Hall County, Ga., reports under date of June 14, 1898, that the
Cicada was present there in 1892. Mr. J. W. Seaton, Strasburg,
Cass County, Mo., writes under date of June 9 that the Cicada last
appeared in that county in the summer of 1892 and in the sunmier
of 1896, being numerous both years. The 1896 record refers to the
17-year Brood IV, and hence the record of 1892 is probably also of
the 17-year race occurring in the same district.

The scattering specimens recorded by Mr. Davis as occurring on
Staten Island in 1892 may also be assigned to this brood.

The distribution, by States and counties, is therefore as follows:

Georgia. — Hall.

Iowa. — Jackson.

Missouri. — Cass.

New York. — Richmond.

Virginia. — Albemarle, Appomattox, Prince William, Washington.

i

lUiOol) will — THKDKCIM n>l!t. 55

Jh'oods of f/u Th'trtu It- Y((if lidce.

IJiiooi. Will Tmhriin MM!). (Fii;. 21.)

This is an iminiportant brood, most of tlic rccoids icpicsfMiiiuM;
scattorinjj: sj)ecimons ratluM- than dense s\\arm.s. Ii was oriLrinallv
ostablisluHl by Professor Kih^v as l^i-ood X\I on llic tcstinioiiv
of Dr. G. B. Smith, who ^j^ivcs in his Jioi^qstcr a rcMoid of its a|)|)('ai-
anco ni Cherokee County, Ga, in 1S2S, 1S41, and \sr)\. Its a|)j)(>ar-
ance in the same loeaHty was also recorded by Dr. ,1. (1. >h)iiis
in 1S()7, and this seems to be the most important swarm of the brood.
The records obtained since rehite to scatterhiiz: occurr(>ne(\s in three
other States.

Fig. 21.— Map showing distribution of Brood XVI IT, 1919.

This brood immediately ])recedes in time of app(»arance tlie larj^est
1.3-year brood known, namely, Brood XIX. The latter brood occu-
])ies the ^lississippi A^alley in the main, but with scattering swarms
extending? well over the Southern States and into A^'ririnia, and tluis
overlaps the territory covered by Brood XATII, indicating: wry
plainly the origin of tlu^ latter as accelerated swarms of Brood XIX.

The localities for Brood XA'TTT as listed in BulkMin 14 are thosc^
given by Professor Riley in lcS94." Xone of them was verified in

« Annual Report, U. S. Department of Ag^iniltiire, 1893, p. 204. (T\\o. rpmrda on
which localities for this brood are based are given in an editorial imtc in Vol. V, Insect
Life, pp. 298. 299.)

31117— No. 71—07 5

66

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

1893, but an additional and ver}^ doubtful locality (Montfromen^, Ala )
was reported that year. The records obtained in 1906 added three
counties for Georgia, six for Tennessee, one for North Carolina, and
one for South Carolina, but gave again no confirmations of old
records. The lack of confirmations, however, does not invalidate
these old records nor necessarily mean the dying out of the swarms,
as no particular effort was made to get reports from the exact
localities.

The distribution, by States and counties, is as follows:

Alabama. — (Lowndes), (Montgomery) (?).

OKoijfiiA. — (Thprokee'i, (TobbV Gordon, Oglethorpe Sc-reven.

Fig. 22.— Map showing distribution of Brood XIX, 1907

North Carolina. — Anson, (Lincoln), (Moore).

South Carolina. — Edgefield.*

Tennessee. — Carroll, Dyer, liiuiderdale. (Lincoln), McXairy, Madison, Stewart.

Brood XIX— Tredecim— 1907 . (Fig. 22.^

This is the largest of the 13-year broods, and also the best recorded,
perluips, from the standpoint of distribution of all tlie broods. It is
Fitch's Brood No. 3, in part, XIII of Walsh-Riley, and XVIII of
Rile}^ Its existence has been known since 1803. Its limits were
most carefully studied by Walsh and Riley in 186S, particularly for
the ^lissouri and Illinois localities. As has elsewhere been explained
(p. 31), there is a possibility that some of the northeni counties, at

BROOD XIX TKKDECTM H»07. (

)/

least of Illinois and Missouri, listed for this hrood Ixdonu' 1<> llic
1 7-y(Mir Brood X, which apix^ari^l with Bi'ood Xl\ in the xcar lucn-
tionrd. Sonu* additional data \\(M"(^ obtained in isM and i>ul)li.--hcd
in Bullc^tin No. S, old series, of the Dixision of iMitoinoloiry. and the
records W(M*e brouLcht (h)\\n to 1S<)4 in the circular issued l)y Pio-
fessor Riley in that yeai'. The latcM* records, mostly in reply t(. the
circular just UKMit iouiMJ, but includini:: a, i:;o()d many i-e|)()rts receixcd
subsecjuent to tlu^ publication of Bull(>tin 1 I. considerabh' modify
and extend tlu^ ranirc* of thc^ brood. The ri^cord for I^vl Paso, 'i'ex.,
is open to much doubt. Tlu^ i-(dat ionship of this brood to l)rood
XXII has been elsewhere discussed.
Its reported limits are as follows:

Alah.\ma.— Autau.iza. Blounl, i'.ullock. ('licrokcc, (■(.Ihcri. ('iillniaii, l)alla> Dckalli.
Elmore, Etowah, Franklin, llalc, Jackson, JctTerson, Lamar, Lauderdale, Lowndes,
Macon, Marshall, Mobile, Montgomery, Perry, Randolph, Russell, St. ("lair.

Arkans.\s. — Baxter, Benton, Boone, Carroll, Clark, Clay, Conway, Crawford,
Dallas, Drew, Franklin, Fulton, Garland, Grant, Greene, Hempstead, Hot Sjjring,
Izard. Johnson, I^awrcnee, Logan, Lonoke, Madison, Marion, Newton, Prairie, Pulaski,
Randolph, Scott, Searcy, Sebastian, Sharp, Stone, Van Buren, Washington, White.

Georgia. — Campbell, Catoosa, Chattooga, Cherokee, Floyd, Fulton, Harris, Pike,
Polk, Rabun, Richmond, Walker, White.

Illinois. — Adams, Bond, Cass, Champaign, Christian, Clark, Clay, Clinioii, Coh'S,
Crawford, Cumberland, Douglas, Edgar, Edwards, Efhngham, Franklin, (iallatin,
Greene, Hamilton, Hancock, Hardin, Iroquois, Jasper, Jefferson, Jersey, Johnson,
Lawrence, Livingston, McLean, Mac(m, Macoupin, Madison, Marion, Massac, Monroe,
Montgomery, Morgan, Perry, Piatt, Pike, Pope, Randolph, Richland, St. Clair, Saline,
Sangamon, Scott, Shelby, Union, Vermilion, Wabash, Washington, Wayne, A\'hil<',
Williamson.

Indian Territory. — Choctaw, Creek.

Indiana. — Vanderburg.

Iowa. — Lee.

Kentucky. — Carlisle, Graves, Hopkins, McCracken, Marshall, Trigg.

Louisiana. — Bossier, Caddo, Claiborne, Morehouse, Wasliington.

Mississippi. — Attala, Choctaw, Clarke, Copiali. I'^-aiikliii. Jasper, Lauderdale.
Leake, Madison, Monroe, Oktibbeha, Scott.

MissoiRi. — Audrain, Barry, Barton, Benton, Bollinger, Boone, Butler, Callaway.
Cedar, Chariton, Clark, Cole, Cooper, Dade, Dallas, Douglas, Franklin, Gasconade,
Greene, Henry, Howard, Iron, Jasper, Jefferson, Knox, Laclede, Lawrence, Lewis,
Linn, Livingston, McDonald, Macon, Madison, Marion, Moniteau, Mmthoc. Morgan.
Newton, Oregon, Pettis, Phelps, Pike, Polk, Pula.ski, Ralls, Ran.lolpl,. Ili])ley.
St. Charles, St. Clair, St. Francois, St. Louis. Saline. SchuyhT, Sliaiuinn. Sieddard.
Stone, Warren, Washington, Webster, Wright.

North Carolina. — Cai)arrus, Caldwell, Cherokee, ( lay, ( iraliam. Iia\\voM(l. Iredell,
Macon, Madi.son, Mecklenburg, Swain, Wake, Wilkes.

Oklahoma Territory. — Payne.

South Carolina. — Aiken, Anderson, Chester, Greenville. Lauren.-^, Oconee. ()ran<;e-
burg, Pickens, Spartanburg, rnioii. York.

Tennessee.— Bedford, Blount, Cocke, I)a\ i<l>oii. ( lih.son. (iile.<, ( ireeiie. Ihiiiil.leii.
Hamilton, Jefferson, Knox, Lawrence, London. McMinn, Marion, Monroe. Moiii
gomery, Rutherford, Sevier, Stewart, Wayne. Wjlliani.'^on, ^\■ilson.

Texas.— El Paso (?).

Virginia. — Brunswick. Halifax. Hanover. Prince George.

68

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Brood XX—Tredecim—l90S. (Fig. 23.)

This is a small brood, founded on records given by Doctor Smith.
Some of the localities cited were confirmed and others negatived on
the recurrence of the brood in 1869, as reported by Professor Riley in
Bulletin No. 8, old series, of the Division of Entomology. Since that
date tliree doubtful localities have been added, one each for Virginia,
North Carolina, and Georgia, possibly based on 17-year ])r()ods which
appeared in conjunction "svith tliis brood.

Fig. 23. -Map showing distribution of Brood XX, 1908.

The distribution, by States and counties, is as follows:

Georgia. — Banks, Greene, Jasper, Muscogee, Walker, Washington.
North Carolina — Wilkes (?).
Virginia. — Wise (?).

Brood XXI— Trededm— 1909. (Fig. 24.)

This is one of the broods representing the extreme southern range of
the Cicada, and was recorded by Doctor Smith in Florida as occurring
in 1844 and 1857. Its existence was confirmed in 1870, when records
were o])tained indicating its extension also into Alabama, Mississippi,
and Tennessee.

Tt is a brood which, according to re])ort, does not seem to occur in
dense swarms, but scatteringly, at least in its more northern range.

liKOOl) AXIl - rUKDl'X'lM I'.ilO

(')9

No records of its npjx^a ranee w liicli liav(> come lo our nol lee wei'e iiiadi
in ISS.S nor in \S\H\.

'Vhv (list I'ihiit ion, hv Stales and counties, is ;is follows:

Alabama. LaiulcnlaU'. Mohih-.
Flouida. — (iiulsden. .lackson. \\'a.><liiiiL^l(>M.
Mississippi. — Jackson, 'i'islioinin^d.
Tkw ks.s k k. — Tlanli n .

Fig. 24.— Map showing distribution of Brood XXI, I'M).
Brood XXII— 7^/-e(/eam— 1910. (Fig. 25.)

This 13-year l)rood, wliicli aj)peared last in 1897, is of small (^xtent.
but well established by many reliable records, the oldest of whicli da t e>
back' to 1806. It is Brood iv of Walsh-Riley and VI of Kiley.

A summary of the distribution of this brood was i^iven by Mr.
Schwarz in Circular No. 22 of the Division of Entomology, is.sued in
May, 1897. This incjuiry resulted in the report of but one additional
locality. Tlie (listrii)uti()n and relationshij) of this brood isLnxcn by
Mr. Schwarz in tlie cii'cular referred to, as follows:

It is confined to parl.< of .southern Mis.sissippi and adjacent parts of Louisiana east of
the Misssissippi, the particular localities Ix-ing given further on. Dr. D. L. Phares, of
Woodville, Miss., has taken particular pains to iLscertain the extent of this l)rood, and
his lucid and concise account, already puhlishcd in 1SS5. in P.ullelin S (old series) of
this Division, is herewith reproduced:

''Their western limit is the Mississippi River, the southern about 8 miles north of
Baton Rouge, the eastern about 4 miles west of Greensburg, the county seat of Helena,

0

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

and 4 miles west also of Lihcrty. in Amite County, Miss., thus extending from 15 to 50
miles from the Mississippi River, and from the vicinity of Baton Rouge, 108 miles to
the northern limit of Clailxjrne County, Miss., perhaps even farther. They therefore
occupy East and West Feliciana, the northern part of East Baton Rouge, the northwest
corner of Livingston and the western part of St. Helena parishes. La., and Wilkinson,
Adams, Jefferson, Claiborne, and parts of Amite, Franklin, and possibly parts of one or
two more counties in Mississippi."

The reports received since 1885 are mostly confirmatory of Doctor Phares's state-
ment, Viut Mr. Thomas F. Anderson, of St. Helena, La., writes us that the parishes, or at
least parts of the parishes, of Tangipahoa, Washington, and St. Tammany had to be
added to the range of this brood. His statement is quite definite; still a confirmation
of these new localities is desirable.

Brood VI [XXII] is evidently a forerunner of the very large 13-year Brood VII
[XXTTT], which will appear in 1898 in the Mississippi Valley. The ^eoeraphical

Fig. 25.— Map showing distribution of Brood XXII. 1910.

range of Brood VII [XXIII] was mapped out in the Annual Report of this Depart-
ment for 1885, and it will be seen from this map that the southern limits of Brood
VII [XXIII] almost precisely coincide with the northern limits of our Brood VI
[XXII.]

Oiip new locality in central Louisiana, in Catahoula County, has been
added.

The brood occurs in the followini^: States and counties:

Louisi.vN A.— Parishes of East Baton Rouge, Catahoula, East Feliciana, Livingston,
St. Helena, St. Tammany (?), Tangi])ah()a (?). Washington (?), and West Feliciana.

Mississippi. — Counties of Adams, Amite. Claiborne, Franklin, Jefferson, and Wil-
kinson.

BROOD XXIII 1 RKDKCIM liUl.

71

Hu(...l. Will Tn.hnni l!l|l. - I'Il'. I'C,. i

Tliis is Wnnnl No. :> of Kilcli. Bnxul \ also of \Val>li-l(il(«\. an.l
Brood \ II of l\il('\. TluMc aic Iwo lar^c lil-ycai- l)i'oo(l>. wliidi
lionor lirood Will (li\i(l(>s with P)roo(l XIX. .Vs iiidicalcd l)y Mi-.
wSchwarz in Circular No. ."50, both oi' thcx' hroods occupy ihc Mi-<^i->-
si|)])i \'all(*\' from nortluMMi Mi.s.souii and sou(h(M-n lllinoi.s to Louisiana ;
hut while Urood XIX occurs also in many other localities, I)I-om(|
XXIII is con(in(Ml more strictly to the Mississi})])! \'all(\v I'eirion. At
the time o( the r(M'urr(Mic(* of this brood in 1898 a very careful inscsti-
pition was nndertaken by the writer of its distribution.

S(n'eral thousand n^plies wovo vccvwcd in r(\s])onse to a circular

l-"l(_.. 2ti.~Mai) showing (ii.slriliULion of Brocxl XXiU. I'.Hl.

sent out, many of which w^erc negative, the hivestigation beiuLT
extended throuirhout all States in which there was any likelihood of
the appearance of the Cicada, and necessarily coverin^^: many counties
and districts where the Cicada was not suspected. Local investiga-
tions were also undertaken by the odicial (Mitomologists in several
States, Professor Forl)es adding four or five new counties for Illinois,
Professor Oarman adding six counties for Kentucky not pr(>viously
reported, all in the eastern end of the State, and Professor Stedman
adding one new county from Missouri. In all three of these reports
our own records were confirmed foi- nearly every county. The
results of this canvass up to dune JO were recorded in Bulletin No. 14

72 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

(new series), Division of Knt()ni()l<jti:y, in an a])pendLX. A large
number of replies were received subsequent to that date, and tlie full
report, with corrected list of localities, was published in Bulletin 18
(new series), pages 61-63. The State and county records given
below are reproduced from this final report.

The reports for 1898 nearly all indicate the occurrence of the insect
in enormous numbers. Unfortunately, however, there enters again
with the records of this year some doubt as to the correct reference of
some of the localities in Illinois, Indiana, and perhaps northern ^lis-
souri, or, in other words, where the territory occupied by the two
races overlaps on account of the scattering presence of Brood YI. In
most of the records assigned to Brood XXIII, however, in the States
mentioned, the evidence points pretty strongly to the accuracy of the
reference. Where there is uncertainty a query follows the county.

The counties marked mth a star (*) indicate those in which the
Cicada occurred in one or more dense swarms, in many cases several
reports being received from the same county. In the unstarred
counties the Cicada was reported in few or scattering numbers, or at
least as not abundant. The counties in italics duplicate old records;
the counties lacking confirmation by the records of this year are
inclosed in parentheses and incorporated with the others.

The State and count}^ records follow:

Alabama. — Etowah.

Arkansas. — Arhansas* Ashley, Calhoun, Carroll, Chicot,^ Clark,* Columbia, Craig-
head,* Crawford, Crittenden,* Cross* Desha* (Franklin), Fulton, Garland, Hot
Spring, Howard, (Izard), (Jackson), Jefferson* Lafayette,* Lee,* Lincoln, Logan,
Lonoke,* Marion, Mississippi,* Monroe,* Newton, Phillips,* Pike, Poinsett,* Prairie,*
Pulashi, Randolph, St. Francis,* Saline,* (Searcy), Sebastian, Sharp, Union, Van
Buren, Washington, Woodruff.*

Georgia. — (Cobb, Coweta, Dekalb, Gwinnett, Meriwether, Newton. «)

Illinois. — Alexander * Crawford,* Edgar, Edwards,* Gallatin, Hardin,* JacJcsoji,*
Jasper,* Jefferson, Johnson, Lawrence,* Macoupin, Madison,* Marion,* Perry,* Pike,
Tulsiski,* Randolph, Richland, St. Clair, Scott, C/nion,* Wabash,* Washington, Wa^^le,*
^^llite, Williamson.*

Indiana. — Bartholomew, Daviess,* Fayette, Floyd, Gibson.* Jackson, Jennings,
Knox,* Montgomery, Owen, Posey,* Putnam, Ripley, Spencer, Sullivan,* Vander-
burg,* Vigo,* WaiTick.*

Kentucky. — Ballard,* (Barren?), Butler, Caldwell, Calloway, Carlisle,* Christian,"
Clinton, Crittenden, Daviess, Fulton,* Grant, Graves,* Green, Hancock, Hardin,
Hickman,* Hopkins, Livingston, Lyon, McCracken, McLean, Mai-shall, Muhlenberg,
Ohio, Todd, Trigg,* Union, Webster, Wolfe.*

Louisiana. — Bienville,* (Bossier), Caldwell,* Claiborne, Concordia,* East Carroll,*
East Feliciana, Franklin,* Madison,* Morehouse, Ouachita,* Pointe Coupee,* (Red
River), Richland,* St. Helena, Tangipahoa, Tensas,* (Washington), TT'csf Carroll*

Mississippi. — Adams, Alcorn,* Amite,* Attala,* Benton,* Bolivar,* Calhoun,*
Carroll,* Claiborne, Coahoma,* Copiah,* De Soto,* Franklin, Grenada,* Hinds,*
Holmes,* (Issaquena), Itawamba, (Jasper), Jefferson, Lafayette,* Lawrence, Leake,

" None of these localities, all of wliich wore queried, was confirmed in 1898, and the
record of this l)rood in Georgia is undoubtedly erroneous.

BROon XXIV TliKDKCIM I1I12.

73

Lee,* Leflore,* Ltnrohi/^ l.owiulcs. Madison,"^ Maritm, Mdr.shnll,'^ M(m((j(niirnj*
Neshoba, Xcirton, Okt iMxlui,'* J'anolo* IMkc,* I'oiitotnc,* Prentiss,* (<')/////»«/i,*
Ranhin* (Scott), Simpson, Smith, Tallaliatcliie,* TiiU* Tippali. (Tislioiijiiigo),
Tunica,* Union.* Warren,* Wiushington.* Wchslcr* Yalohusha,* Yazoo.*

Missouri. — Audrain * Barry, Benton, Boone, Callaway, ("aniden, Cape (iirunlrau,*
Cedar, Christian, Clark (?), Clinton, Cole, Cooper, Dade, J>aUas, Dent, J)oii(jIa,s, Gas-
conade, Greene, Ilickonj, Howell. Iron. JelJ'erson, JoJinson, Kno.r, (Lawrence)) Linn,
Maries,* Miller, Morgan, Xeir Madrid,* Osacje* Ozark, remiscot,* I'rrry,* Pettis,
Phelps, Polk, Puhuski, Reynolds (?), St. Charles,* St. Clair, St. Francois, St. Louis,
Scott,* Taney, Te.ras, Warren, Washington,* Webster.

Ohio. — Hamilton.

Tennessee. — Benton,* Carroll,* Chester * Crockett, (Davidson), Decatur,* Dickson,*
Dyer,* Fayette,* Gibson,* Hardeman,* Hardin,* Haywood, Henderson,* Henry,* Hum-
phreys,* Lake,* Lauderdale,* Lewis, McNairy,* Madison,* (Maury), Montgomery,
Obion,* Periy,* (RobertsonV RulluM-ford. Shelby,* Stewart. Tipton* Wayn<-.* Wmk-
le)/.* Williamson.

Fig. 27.— Map showing distribution of Brood XX 1\", lUlJ.

Biiooo XXlX—Tredci

1911

(Fig. 27.)

This is one of the new tredecim ])roocls indicated ])y the writer in
Bulletin LS (new series) of this Bureau on the stren^rth of the follow in^
records :

^Ir. P. Lynch, Commerce, Scott County, Mo., ^mder date of Decem-
ber 24, L'^74, reports that the Cicada appeared in the summer of LS73
in considerable numbers, coming in June and remaining about two
months. ^' Their eastern limit in this county (vScott) was the Missis-

74 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

sippi River, l)iit tlio}' were as niiiuerous on the opposite side of the
river in Alexander County, 111."

Mr. W. S. Campere, Pickens Station, Holmes County, ^liss., ^^Tites
under date of February 27, 1S75, that the cicadas appeared in threat
numbers in April, 1.S73. These two records would indicate a brood
originating doubtless by retardation of individuals of Brood XXIII.

Subsequent to the publication of the records for this brood in Bul-
letin Xo. IS (new series) of this Bureau two additional localities have
been reported — one in Louisiana and one in ^lississippi. Mr. Ben H
Brodnax, of Brodnax, Morehouse County, La., reported in 1899 that
the locusts first appeared in email numbers on May 2 and lasted only
about ten days. On inquiry he found that they were heard scattered
about the south Arkansas line (Ashley County) and dowTi to the
lower line of Morehouse Parish. Xo specimens were collected. This
report carries the record of this brood into the edge of Arkansas.

Mr. George H. Kent, Meadville, Franklin County, Miss., in a letter
of May 30, 1S99, reports the appearance of a small brood in the western
part of Franklin County between the latter part of April and Ma}^ 15.
Both of these records, as with the earlier ones, are probably fi'om
belated swarms of Brood XXIII, but may represent the start of a
new brood.

The State and count}^ distribution of the brood is as follows:

Arkansas. — Ashley.
Illinois. — Alexander.
LouiSLA-NA. — Morehouse.
Mississippi. — Franklin, Holmes.
^Missouri. — Scott.

Brood XXY—Tred€cim—19lZ.

(Xo Cicada records of tlie 13-year race have been reported corre-
sponding with this brood number.)

Brood XXVI— T/w/m/n— 1914. (Fig. 28.)

Tills brood, Xo. X of Riley, was originally based on a very doubtful
record given by Dr. Gideon B. Smith, to the effect that he was
informed that the insect appeared in vast numbers in parts of Texas
in 1849, but that he was unable to get any particulars. Xo confirma-
tion of the occurrence of this brood in Texas has since been gained,
and its existence is very doubtful. A more definite record was
secured, however, b}" Professor Riley in 1875, from Dr. D. L. Phares.
A gentleman reported to the latter that a swarm of cicadas was heard
on the 10th of June in West Feliciana Parish, La., near the river and
south of Bayou Sara. Some specimens were secured of tliis brood,
all dwarfs. No other record seems to have been secured of this brood
until the year 1 001 . In that year the occurrence of the brood in West
Feliciana Parish was confirmed, locusts being reported by Mr. John

RUOdD XXI.V—TKEnEClM VM'.

75

F. Grifriii. of Wnkcru'ld, :is occiii riii^ in small mimlxM-s tlir()ii<xli()ul llio
parish belwoen the otli aiul Joih of May. An ()iil])()s( in Mississippi
is also rc^porUvl ])y Mr. (i(M)i-i:(' H- Kciil, SulVolk, Franklin County,
who reports tluMr aj)p(*aranc(^ throu^liout the >ont hwcsicni |)oiii()n
of \]\v county in tlu^ month of May.

The rt'cords for tliis brood, thercfoi'e, ar(>:

Loi isr.wA. — West Fi'liciana Parish.
Mississippi. — Fraiiklia ( "ounty.
Tex.vs.— (?).

Fig. 28.— Map showing (Rstribiition of Brood XX\i, I'JM.
Brood XXVII— Tredenm—V.)lo.

A small brood was reported for Franklin County, Miss., as api)(^arui*,^
aboH.it May 20, 1902, l)y Mr. George IT. Kent, of Suffolk.

1 '> K()( ) I . X X V 1 1 1— Tmhriin - I !t I ( i .

(Xo Cicada records of the i:]-year race have been rej)orte(l eorre-
sponduig with this brood number.)

IJuooi) XXIX— 7'm/m/«— 1917. (Fi^. 29.)

Tavo records wliieli can be assigned to lliis brood nuin])er were
reported ])y the writei- in Bulletin IS (new series) of this Bureau.

Mr. C. J. Wellborn, Blairsville, Union County, Ga., writes under
date of June 12, 1885, that ''in May, 1878, locusts appeared soutli

'6

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

of lliis placo, and tlu* iiorlhciii limit tlien was tlie present southern
limit of the territory covered now (])y Brood X, 1885)."

^Ir. James Pagon, Winnsboro, Fairfield Count}", S. C, writes that
locusts appeared in South Carolina in 1878, l)ut does not give definite
localities. Both these records need confirmation.

A record submitted bv the late W. S. Robertson, of Muskogree,
Ind. T., in a letter dated June 17, 1879, of the occurrence of a brood
of cicadas in 1839 at that point, was assigned, in the publication just
referred to, to Brood XV, under the supposition that it probably
belonged to the 17-vear race. This record falls, however, in territoi-v

Fig. 29.— Map showing distribution of Brood XXIX, 1917.

wliich is distinctly 13-year, and would seem to indicate that it
belonged rather to Brood XXIX.

The distribution of this brood, by States and counties, is as follows:

Georgia. — Union.

Indian Territory. — Muskogee.

South Carolina. — Fairfield.

Brood XXX— Tm/m?/)— 1918. (Fig. 30.)

This brood was established by the writer on a single record given
in Bulletin 18 (new series) of this Bureau. Tliis record follows:

^Ir. B. II. Brodnax, Brodnax, Morehouse Parish, La., writes under
date of May 13, 1892, that cicadas are scatteringly present, and in a

SYSTEMATIC POSI'IMOX AM) STKrciM' K A I. I >1"IA 1 l.S.

later l(>t((M' he asscMis that the insect in (incstion is I lie pciii
Cicada, w ilh wliich \w is laniiliar.

An addition to this record was i-cc(m\(mI in is'.is in a post.il
Mr. J. ^V. Scaton, 8trasl)iir<x, Cass Connlv, Mo., who icpoii^
llu\v appeared there in the sunnncM- of is'.ij. as ili(>\ did nUo in
(Brood XXI), heinijf nuniei'ous l)olh vears.

'V]\c Stal(^ and counly records ai*e:

I.orisiANA. Mi)r('lu)iisc.
Missorui. Cass.

>di<'al

t'n„n
thai

IS'.Ki

Pig. 30.— Map showing distnibution of Brood XXX, I'Jls.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION AND STRUCTURAL DETAILS.

Tlic periodical Cicada belongs to the Homoptera, one of the two
divisions of the Heniiptera, or great order of sucking insects, la in i ha r
to the public mind under the name of ''bugs/' and including, in a(hM-
tion to the graceful and attractive species like the Cicada, such foul-
smelhilg species as the plant bugs, scpiash bugs, and certain animal
j^arasites. The incMubei-s of the suborder I loinoptei'a, to W/hich the
Cicada and its alH(\s belong, are, 1io\v(>\(M'. (hstinctly reniove<l from
the lower sulxmhu" of ''J)Ugs" just i-efeiicd to. namely, (he Hetercp-
tera, and as a rule lack the disgusting odor and habits of the latter
and less est-eein(vl suborder of sucking insects. The Homoptera as a
rule comprise clear-winged insects, which subsist on the juic(\s of

78

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

plants, and are active usually in flight and often beautiful in form
and color. The cicadas are not only the largest and most striking
insects of their suborder, some of the species measuring over 6 inches
in expanse of wings, but in the male sex are endowed with the power
of song, which last characteristic has invested them with great pop-
ular interest in all ages; and especially in the poetry of nature are
they noteworthy, from the time of Homer to the present.

The old genus Cicada is represented by species in all parts of the
world, over five hundred distinct forms being already known, and
the}^ are especially abundant in North America, nearly one hundred
species having been described from the continent and adjacent islands.
The more familiar of these insects to the popular mind are the com-
mon dog-day cicadas, or
harvest flies, represented
b}' several species, the
most abundant of which
is, perhaps. Cicada tihi-
cen L. {pruinosa Say).
The sleepy droning of
these annually appear-
ing species in July and
August is commonly
taken as a harbinger of
greater heat and is a
most familiar character-
istic of midsummer.

The periodical species
is much more slender
and graceful than the
majority of the annual
visitors, but structurally
is not very dissimilar.
It is medium sized, for
the most part black in
color, with orange-red eyes and limbs, and with the margin of principal
veins of the four nearly transparent wings similarly colored.

In discussing the structure of this insect particular attention will
be given only to the important organs, viz, those for taking food, or
the beak, the instrument for piercing plants and depositing eggs, or
the ovipositor, and the organ of song in the male insect.

A cursory examination of one of these insects from above reveals
its rather robust body, covered by two pairs of transparent parchment-
like^ elliptical wings, which rest roof-like over the abdomen; the short
transverse head, w itli great oval prominent eyes at the lateral angles,
the three minute ocelli arranged in a triangle on top, and the very

Fig. 31.— Head and prothorax of Cicada, lateral view, showing
parts in normal position. For description, see fig. 33.
(A.uthor's illustration.)

THE MOUTH I'AKTS, ( H; IlKAK

7\)

short, tlirt'ad-likc anUMina' piojcct ini:; Ixmwccii tlic (•(HhjxuiikI eyes.
Viewed from beiiealli, [\w t riai\i::iilar jji-olon^al ion of ilic licad into
the three-jointed h(nik it \o he noted; tlie \^"j:-^, no! oixM-iallx lai'ir*'
or strong exec^pt for tlie anterior femora, wliicli ai"e mncli I liickmcd ;
in tlu^ fenude tlie eomphw instrument for the d(>|)osit ion of e^^s pi-o-
j(H'tini2: from a fissiin* or sht in tlie lower surface* of the ahdomen. and
the hluntiM' al)domen of tin* male without th(> fissure Ix-iicatli, hiil
with two lar^c^ vcuitral j)lates at the base of th(^ abdomen coxcrin^ ,
the sounding disks of the vocal aj)paratus. The latter is located on
either sidc^ of the base of the abdomen and appears as two inflated
ribbed drums of lighter color than the general body surbice.

Fig. 32.— Head of Cicada, front view, showing the normal position of mouth parts on the left, and
with the mandible and maxilla drawn out on the right. For description. s<'p fitr. 33. r Author's
illustration.)

The structure and workings of the more miportant organs, namely,
the beak, the ovipositor, and the vocal apparatus, follow in some
detail.

THE MOUTH PARTS, Oi; HKAK.

In the order of insects to which the periodical Cicada belongs
it is possible to trace all the essential parts, thougb vastly modified,
found in the mouth of tnie biting insects, namely, th(> upper lip
(labnim), the main j)air of jaws (mandibles), the .second, or lower,
pair of jaws (maxilhe), and, beneath, the l(jwer li]) (labium). Within
also are the two tongues, one projecting from the roof of the mouth

80

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

(c'pipharv^nx) and the other (hypopharynx) attaching to the upper
])ase of the lower hp. These tongues are short and of service, prob-
ably, in facilitating the suction necessary' in raising the fluids of the
plant to the mouth. They do not extend beyond the mouth canity,
and never enter the plant tissues.

The upper lip is comparatively short, and serves its normal ])urpose
as a covering for the adjacent parts of the mouth. What correspond
to the short, powerful biting jaws of gnawing insects are in the Cicada
greatly elongated and tliread-like, and brought together to form a sort
of piercing and sucking apparatus, which is inclosed in the greatly
elongated lower lip. The latter is three-jointed and deeply grooved

Fig. 33.— Head and prothorax of Cicada, lateral view, with parts separated to show structure: I. a,
ch-peus, 6 and c, labrum, d, epipharj-nx; 1', same from beneath; II, mandible, a, base, 6, sheath for
seta, c, mandibular seta, c', muscular base of latter; III, maxilla with parts similarly lettered; IV.
labium, with three joints as follows, o, submentum, 6, mentum, c, ligula; the hj'popharjTix is shown
at d, from side, d', from above, and d", from beneath; V, prothorax. (Author's illustration. i

above so as to be almost tubular, and acts as a support and sheath for
the piercing seta-Uke jaws, and also assists in conveying the liquids
from the point of contact with the plant to the mouth cavity. The
long lower lip just described is the piercing beak in popular belief, yet
in point of fact it never enters the tissues of the plant, the puncture
being made solely by the fine, stiff, needle-like jaws or setie, which can
])e ])rojected at will by the insect with great force from the tip of the
beak. (See figs. 31, 32, 33, and 34,a.)

The feetling habits of the adult Cicada are discussed on pages 101-
1 {)'!. The main feeding is, however, during the long adolescent period,
comprising the larval and pupal existence of the insect under the soil.

THE OVirOSTToR.

81

when tho takini: of food is a i'onstant fcatuiw 'V\\o stnictun^ of tli(^

mouth parts iii those prohininary sta^i^es is iih-ntical Id (>>
that of the adiiU, and tlio characteristic f(>aturcs an>
ilhistratcMl ill the for(\<xoiniJ: fi^iinvs witli su])j()iii(>(l expla-
nations.

In the takinii: of food by \\\v larv:e and pupa', as tli(>\
rest on the rootlets in their earthen cells, (he tip of \\w
beak, namely, tlu^ lower li]), is ])rousj;ht to hear on the
root, and by alternating^; lon<j:it udinal thinists of the seta^,
especially the u])j)er pair, which are the stron<z:er and
wliich n^present the ^reat jaws or nnmdibles of bitinu"
insects, the soft, succuk^nt hiyers of the cam])ium
beneath the bark are reached, the skmder seta^ bein<r
suj)j)orted, strengthened, and directed by the stronirer

it ials w itii

and

(MICH'C

liiiiT sheath-like lower

Fir.. 34.— The pc-
riodicalCicada:
Side view of fe-
male to show
beak, a, and
ovipositor, 6.
(After Rilev.)

Fig. 3').— A])domen of female Cicada showing ovi-
positor and attachments: a, ventral, b, lateral,
and c, dorsal view, (Author's illustration.)

THE OVIPOSITOR.

li]). The irritation
c a u s e d b y this
puncture inchices a
How of sap, which
passes up between
the seta3 to the k)wer li]) and
within this along the basal por-
tion of the setae into the mouth
or throat
by suction,
as in higher
animals.

The ovipositor (fig. 34,6; fig. 35), or twig-pierc-
ing and egg-laying organ, of the female Cicada
is also a very complex instrument. It issues
from a groove, or fissure, on the underside of the
abdomen, and at rest is nearly concealed except
at the tip by the broad overlapping sides of the
eighth dorsal segment. The ovipositor proper
is protected and covered when at rest bytwo
valves, which form a sort of sheath, or scabbard.
The inclosed ovipositor is a very tough, horny
instrument, spear-shaped, and serrated at tlu*
extremity, and consists of three pieces, namely,
a back portion (probably two pieces grown to-
gether), which acts as a supporting or connect-
ing piece for the two lateral bladcvs. Tliese lateral |)ieces, or blades,
slide up and down in alteniation on tongues projecting from the cen-
31117— No. 71— ()7 »)

Fi(i. 3(i.— Tip of ovipositor
(if Cicada, much enlarged:
(I. from above, h, from bc-
ncalh, with dotted portion
to show the alternating
Mint ion of the side pieces.
LVuthor's illustration.)

82

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

tral ()rsuj)p()rting piece, have serrated cutting edges, and are the chiet
agents in piercing twigs preparatoiy to the deposition of eggs (fig, 36).
The relative position of the three parts of the ovipositor and the
nature of the locking tongues, grooves, and clasps, which make one
tube of the whole, are illustrated in the accompanying cross sections
(%. 37).

The different pieces of the ovipositor attach to flat plates partly
concealed within and attaching to the wall of the ahulomen, and are
operated by powerful muscles both in making incisions in the twigs
and in passing the eggs from the oviduct (which opens at the base
of the o^^positor) through the tube formed b}' the three parts of tlip

instrument, until they reach their final
lodgment in the tmg. The act of o\iposi-
tion will be described in another place.

THE MUSICAL APPARATUS.

Perhaps the most interesting feature of
the anatomy of the Cicada to the popular
mind is the musical apparatus, by means
of which it makes its peculiar note, or song.
This apparatus and the sounds produced by
its possessor have been studied and de-
scribed by many naturalists, beginning \\'ith
the very earliest, and, in fact, the fullest and
most accurate description of the method of
of producing sounds and the anatomical
structure of the vocal organ in these insects
is the one given, early in the last century,
b}'^ that famous French pioneer in the study
of the biology and anatomy of insects,
Reaumur. «

The work of Reaumur was confirmed and added to a hundred years
later by a most painstaking study of living specimens by another
French student, Sober, ^ and for a minute technical description of the
anatomy and workings of the sound apparatus the reader is referred
to these authors.

The special modification and structure of these parts in our periodi-
cal species have been studied b}^ the more important older writers,
as Potter and Smith, and more recently by W. J. Burnett^ and E. G.
Love.^

Fig. 37.— Cross section of ovipositor
of Cicada: a, with parts attached
in natural position; h, separated
to show interlocking tongues and
grooves. (Author's illustration.)

oHistoire des Insects, Vol. V (1740), pp. 158-170, pi. 17.
&Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1837, Vol. VI, pp. 199-217.
'•Pror. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1851, Vol. IV, p. 72.
'^JuLU-u. N. y. Micros. Soc, 1895, XI, pp. 39-42.

TIIK Ml'SlCAI, Al'l'AKA-ITS.

83

As already noUvl, i\\o jj:it"l of soiu;- is riuiiul in the male iiis(Mt onlv.
and the true sound a[)|)aralus consists of two small ear-hk(« or shell-
like inflated drums siluat(nl on ihe sidcvs i^{' {\\c hasa! se^uuMit of the
abdomen. These drums are caused to \il)i-at(* hy the action of pow-
erful nuiscKv-^, and tlu^ sound is ^•a^iously modified hy adjacent
smaller disks — the so-called "mirrors" or sonndini: hoards and i->sues
as the peculiar note of the species, which once beai'd is ue\(M- likelx to
he forgotten, or. if heard ajj:ain, mistak(Mi for that of somc^ other insect .
The true sonnd organs are entirely exposed ni the ])erio(lical C'ica«la
except for tlu^ covering affordetl by the closed wings of the resting
insect. Tn other cicadas these drums are usually protected b}^ over-
hipping valves or expansion of the body wall.

The sounding drum,
or '^timbal,-' as Reau-
nuir termed it, of the
periodical Cicada is a
tense, dry^crisp mem-
])rane n u m e r o u s 1 y
ribbed or plated with
the convex surface
turned outward. The
ribs are chitinous thick-
enings or folds in the
surface of the parch-
ment-like drum, and
strengthen the drum
while perhaps render-
ing it at the same time
more elastic. The
sound is produced by
the rapid \4bration, or
undid at ion, caused by
the springing or snap-
ping in and out of these corrugated drums. Two powerful mux-hvs
of ver^^ peculiar structure situated wdthin the base of th(^ ab(h)iu(Mi
set these drums in motion, producing the rattling so-called song of
the Cicada, very nuich, as has been suggested, as sound is produced
by pressing up and down the bottom of a tin pan which is sonu^what
bulged.

Beneath each ''timbal" in the base of th(^ abdonuMi of th(^ insect
is a large sound or air chamber, and a third occurs in the thorax
joining the first two. These are closed by {\\c body walls and mem-
branes, and the two abdominal ones beneath by the very peculiar
"mirrors," or "spectacles" — the tense, mica-like membranes situated
at the base of the abdomen and protect e<l and covered by the semi-
circular rigid disks projecting from the thorax. These transparent

Fig. 38.— The musical apparatus of tlie pcrioditul Cicada: a, view
from beneath, sho\\ing the plates (light colored) covering the
sounding disks; b, dorsal view, the timbals shoving as light-
colored areas; c, section at base of abdomen, showing attach-
ment of large muscles to timbals; (/, timl)al greatly enlarged,
in normal position; e, same drawn forcil)ly in by the action of
one of the muscles, as in singing. (Author's illustration.)

84 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

membranes are often m.istaken ft)r tlie true sound organs, but tbov
are rather sounding boards, or drums, to increase and transmit tlie
sound vibrations induced by the play of the timbals. That the}- are
not essential to the production of sound can be shown by slitting
them or removing them altogether without there being any cessation
of the note. Much more important modifiers of sound are the semi-
circular disks projecting from the thorax over the '^mirrors," which,
if closed artificial^ or by the insect, deaden the sound very much,
or if opened or cut off, allow it to escape in greater volume. In sing-
ing, also, the insect modifies the song notes and their volume by rais-
ing and lowering the abdomen, thus opening and closing these disks,
and the act of singing is also accompanied by a sort of trembling of
the thorax. The position assumed b}^ the male when singing is always
with the head upward. The abdomen is then elevated and apparently
inflated, and wdth the beginning of the sound is slowly brought down
against the limb, when the note ceases. After a rest of a few seconds
this operation is repeated. These abdominal movements vary in
different species of Cicada and determine in a measure the peculiar
notes of each.

THE SONG NOTES OF THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

The song of the different species of cicadas is very distinctive, and
one familiar ^\ith the music of these insects can as readily recognize
the particular species by its peculiar notes as one knows the different
birds or mammals by theirs. The general character of the notes of
the periodical species has been thus described by Dr. G. B. Smith :«

The music or song produced by the mjTiads of these insects in a warm day from
about the 25th of May to the middle of June is wonderful. It is not deafening, as
many describe it; even at its height it does not interrupt ordinary conversation. It
seems like an atmosphere of wild, monotonous sound, in which all other sounds float
with perfect distinctness. After a day or two this music becomes tiresome and dole-
ful, and to many very disagreeable. To me it was otherwise, and when I heard the
last note on the 25th of June the melancholy reflection occurred — shall I live to hear
it again?

As one approaches a colony of these insects a peculiai^rpar, not
unlike the noise of a factory or a distant reaper, falls on the ears, and
this becomes louder and more intense as one draws nearer, having at
times to one standing in the midst of a coloiw a peculiar all-pervading
and penetrating effect. The individual notes are somewhat obscured
under these circumstances, but in the lulls the characteristic sounds
strike the ear, and the peculiarity is never to be forgotten, especially
the mournfid falling note at the conclusion of each effort. Nearly
all the principal ^^Titers on the Cicada, and notably Potter, Smith,
and Fitch, have attempted to analyze the song note of this insect,

a Scientific American, March 22, 1851.'

SON(4 NOTES. 85

but (]i(^ iiiosl caiH'Tul sliiilv made is thai hv riofi^ssoi- Kilcw" wIk*
disliu*i;uisli(\s {\\vvo iinpoiiaiU iioUvs as cliaraclci'isl ic of diircrciit rea-
sons or coiulilions of tlu* aci-ial life of (lie male iiix'cl.

Tlio loudest and most cliarachM-isl ic iiolc, and llicoiic w hicli i.s \)v\--
lia})s most familiar to {\\c populai- mind, is the n()t(> docrilx'd l)\
Fitch as ■■ iH^])i'(\s(Mit(Mi l)\ \\\v let t (MS tsli-c-c-b^-lvlvl^-c-on , uticicd
continuously and ])rolonu(Hl to a (|uart(M- or half miiuitc in Icn^tli, tlic
niiddh^ not(^ doarcninuly shi-ill, loud, and piercing to the ear, and it>
termination i^radually lo\v(M'ed until the sound expires." TIk* h'uuth
of this note given by Fitch is ])robal)ly the niaxinnim tei'in and is
unusual. Ordinarily it is nuich shorter, ranging from two (»i- thice
to li\(' or ten or vwu twenty seconds. This note is the chaiacter-
istic one of tlie height of the season, when great nund)ers of males
are singing together, and is rarely made by solitary individuals or
when there are only a few together. Some instinct also seems to
prompt the singing in unison, and as it rises at such moments the
iiitensity and volume of sound has a startling and weird effect.

The second important note is what is ordinarily known as the " Pha-
r-r-r-aoh" note, and is made early in the season, or when the males
are few in number and recently emerged. The termination of this
note is notable even more than the last for its peculiar mournful
cadence and lowering of pitch, which is very characteristic. It lasts
])ut^two or three seconds. It has been compared, rather fancifully,
I think, by^ Professor Riley to the whistling of a train passing through
a short tunnel, or, when made by several individuals, more accu-
rately to the croaking of certain frogs.

A third, but less important, note is the clicking or intermittent
chirping, consisting, of from 15 to 30 short, quick sounds, sometimes
double, the whole lasting about five seconds, and resembling the
shar]) clicking of the chimney swift or some of the field crickets.

When disturbed and at the moment of taking fhght the insect is a])t
to make a short cry^ or sharp chirp.

All of these notes are said to occur in the small cassinii form, l)ut of
higher pitch and less volume, but the clicking note seems to be the
characteristic one of this variety.

The strength and clearness of all the notes vary with th.e weather
conditions. They are loudest when the air is dry and warm and
glear, or between the hours of 11 and 3 o'clock. On wet days, or
when the air is unusually moist, the sound is much diminished, and
heavy^ or continued rains stop it for the time altogether.

While it is almost universally true that the song of the Cicada is
never heard between sunset and sunrise, they will, on very rare occa-
sions, when disturbed, start up singing in concert in the middle of

" Science, Sepleniber 25, 1895.

86 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

L the ni^ht. Prof. A. D. Hopkins noted an instance or two of this
kind in connection with the brood of cicadas appearing in West Vir-
ginia in 1<S97. He says:

I WHS fortunate enough to hear the starting of one of these concerts on a clear, moon-
light night in June. One male in an apple tree near the house suddenly called out
as if disturbed or frightened. His neighbors in the same tree were thus apparently
awakened. One started the familiar song note, which was at once taken up by num-
bers of other males, and, like the waves from a pebble dropped into still water, the
music rapidly spread until it reached the edge of the thick woods, where it was taken
up by thousands of singers, and the concert was in as full blast as it had been the
previous day. This continued a few minutes, until all had apparently taken part
and the song had reached its highest pitch, when it began to gradually subside, and
in a short time silence again prevailed.

THE SO-CALLED STING OF THE CICADA.

With every general outbreak of this insect are associated many
accounts in local papers of its stinging human beings, the sting often
resulting, it is stated, more or less seriously to the person stung. Such
accounts were especially abundant in the great Cicada 3^ear 1868, and
in every important Cicada year before and since similar reports have
been made. So great was the fear in 1868, as noted by Professor
Riley, that in some cases fruits were avoided as being stung and
poisoned, and even drinking water was sometimes under suspicion.

So far as investigation of the reports has been possible they have
proved to be either utterl}^ without foundation or much exaggerated.
Referring again to Doctor Smith's manuscript, it is seen that he spent
much labor in carefully investigating such accounts, and found in
every case that he followed up, where death had been reported as
caused by the '^bite" or sting of the ^'locusts," that the story was
entirely fabulous. In the cases of apparent stinging he suggests that
the sufferer had probably been stung b}^ a wasp, as ^\'ill be later
explained, and soundl}^ argues on the susceptibilit}' of some neople to
whom the slightest scratch becomes a source of danger.

Professor Potter, referring to the Cicada, says in tliis connection:
''It can not defend itself against an ant or a fly. We have liandled
them, male and female, time after time. We have mutilated them,
but never could provoke them to resentment."

Professor Rile}^ says that of the thousands ^\ liicli he has handled,
and the hundreds of other persons, including children, who have also
handled these insects, not a single bona fide case of stinging has, to
liis knowledge, resulted.

That the periodical Cicada can pierce the flesh Avith its suckiag beak,
or, more properly, the fine needle-like filaments contained in it, or
perhaps extremely rarely w ith the ovipositor in the case of the female,
is quite within the bounds of possibility, and some apparently well-
authenticated cases or reports by reliable observers bear out this view.

THE S()-('ALLKI) STINc;. 87

There is not a particle^ of ('\i(l(MU'(\ howcNcr. lo show ilmt siidi pciic-
tratiiitx i^ atteiulcHl with tlic injiM-tion of any poisonous Ihiid, mid the
injurious conseciuences which lollow them in rare cases aic cNidciiiK
due to unusual s(Misitiveness on the j)art of the in(h\i(hial. as su<^^cst(Ml
hy Doctor Sniitli, or a l)a(l condition of the hlood. whicli would cause
any wound to \)o aWcwdod witli scM'ious consecjucnccs. In this con-
nection it is to he i'(Mn(Mnhered that there ai-c well-authenticated
instances of most serious, if not fatal, results I'ollow in^r the hites of
such insects as the mosquito, and other ])itino; flies, the result of tlie
bites of which are very trivial in connnon experience.

With all the reports of stings by the Cicada which have heen made
it is not to be ({uestioned that some of them have a basis in fact. As
suggested by Doctor Smith, and afterwards fully elaboi-atcd by
Doctor Walsh," many of these reports are undoubtedly cases of w long
determination, and the stinging had probably no direct connect ion w ith
the Cicada. There are, for example, several large digger was])s which
provision their larval galleries with adult cicadas for the maintenance
of their young. One of the commonest of the digger wasps is the
species S phecius speclosus Dru., described later on under the heading of
the enemies of the Cicada (pp. 132-134). As fhst suggested by Doctor
Smith, and afterwards more fully shown by Doctor Walsh, it is not
unlikely that this or some allied w-asp, flying with its rath(^r hc^av}^
burden, might strike against or alight on some human bemg, and upon
being brushed off would retaliate by stinging the offender and then
flying away, leaving the Cicada behind. In the absence of the wasp
the Cicada would ver}^ naturally be accused of the ofl'ense. The usual
prey of this wasp, which appears rather too late in the season to
account for all the cases of stinging reported, is the later appearing
annual cicadas.

The rare cases of stinging by the Cicada that have any basis in fact
may be accounted for, as already suggested, by a thrust either of the
ovipositor or the sucking beak.

From the structure of the ovipositor, as already described, it w ill at
once be perceived that there is nothing impossible in a woimd IxMug
made by this instrument. The objections to this suggestion aie that
the ovipositor when not in use in placing eggs in twigs is concealed in
a sheath in the insect's abdomen, and also that the pieicing of a twig
or other sui)stance by the ovipositor is a slow and laboi-ious ])r()cess, /
and therefore would not account for the ((uick sting usually (](\sci-il)ed.
In no case has an egg been found in the flesh, and in fact it is imj)i()b-
able that an insect would Ix* allowed to rest long enough on the fhvsh
to accomplish the insertion of an egg. b'urtherniore. t(\sts were made
and reported by Doctor Walsh '' and later by Professor Riley, showing

"American Entomologist, I. \)\). 7, S. ScplciiilxT. ISHS. ^ T>i)c. cil.

88 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

the absurdity of the theory that the stingmg in question is done by
the aid of this instrument, the female not being able to puncture the
soft, yielding flesli at all. In one test reported by Professor Riley,
^li*. William Muir, of St. Louis, removed a female from a tree wliile
she was in the act of ovipositing, and placed her on his finger.
Although she instinctively endeavored to continue her work, she was
not able to make the least impression on the soft, yielding flesh. A
second experiment was made by ^Ir. Peter A. Brown, of Philadelphia,
who himself made several punctures upon his hand with the o^-ipositor
without experiencing any more serious results than would have
followed pricking with a pin or other sharp instrument. In a third
experiment, Doctor Hartman, of Pennsylvania, introduced some
moisture from the ovipositor into an open wound and it caused no
inflammation whatever.

The ovipositor having been removed as the probable source of sting-
ing, the beak only remains, and it is unquestionably by means of tliis
instrument that practically all the so-called stings of the Cicada are
made. The structure of the beak has already been discussed, and it is
not at all improbable, though certainly a rare occurrence, that the
Cicada, when held or caught, may thrust out the slender setae and
puncture the skin. Man}^ other hemipterous insects are kno^^TL to
'^ sting" in tliis way and to cause some severe momentary pam. The
sensitiveness of the individual is, however, in the case of the Cicada,
the sole criterion of injury. The authentic reports of Cicada stings
show some variations in the effects, but as a rule the result is much
less serious than the sting of a bee and not m^uch more than the punc-
ture of a needle, the wound usually healing immediately.

TRANSFORMATION TO THE ADULT STAGE.

PERIOD OF EMERGEXCE.

The date of the issuing of the cicadas fi'om the ground after their
long concealment varies a little with the latitude, being later m the
North than in the South. In the accounts of tliis insect published by
Professor Riley and most other writers up to the present time it has
been stated that there is A^ery little divergence in the time of issuing
between the northern and the southern broods, the latter half, or more
strictly the last week, of May being the normal period for the emerg-
ence of the insect throughout its range. That there may be, however,
a considerable difference in time, depending on elevation and tempera-
ture, m a given district and in the northern and southern parts of the
country, also determined undoubtedly by temperature, has been fully
established. The variation in the dates of appearance is illustrated
bv tlio followmy; records:

rKMloi) OF KMKK(}KN('K. S9

Doctor Pharos, wi-iiinjj; of {\\o occurrcMicc of 1)I(k)(1 XXII in ls71,
states tliat a ivw mnhvs l)(>u:an to apjx'ar about the _*()ili of Aj)iil, hut
that the hulk of the brood did not cincr^e until the 7lli and mIi of
^hiy, wliou {\\v\ eaiiie foi'th from the eaiih in \ a>t luiinlxM^. continii-
iiii^ to iMiUM-t:;e in (hininisliinix nunihers until the istli of Mji\. It will
be reinenihered that this is the most southern of all the hroods- l\in«r
in the southwest eoi'nei" of Mississij)|)i and th(> adjoininir parts of
Louisiana.

Mr. John Hart ram, writiniz; of tlu^ hrood appeai'in^^ in 17 1!), states
tliat in th(> ncM^lihorhood of Phiiadcdphia an ahundaiiee of these
iiiseets whieli liad just escaped from then* skins was observed on the
niornhit]; of May 10 and that they continued to issue in ^reat numheis
for a week or more, be<2:innin<2: to sing on the 13tli and to ()vi])osit on
the lOth, and disappearing altogether by the 8th of June.

In the great brood year of 1868 Professor Riley noted tliat in tlic
vicinity of St. Louis ''they commenced to issue on the 22d of May,
and by the 25th of the same month the woods resounded with tlie
rattling concourse of perfect insects." At Washington, D. C, in the
Cicada year 1885, scattered individuals appeared on May 23, and they
issued, perhaps, most abundantly on the night of the 27th. Those
emerging within the city were somewhat earlier in appearance than
was the case in the neighboring woods across the Potomac in Virginia,
probabl}' for the same reason that the trees in the city put out their
fohage a little earlier than in the near-by woods.

Mr. Davis, writing of Brood II as it appeared in 1894 on Staten
Island, New York, sa3^s that as early as May 19 many cicadas had
emerged, the first individuals of the swarm being noted six or seven
days earlier.

Mr. A. W. Butler, writing of the brood appearing in 1885 in Frank-
Lin County, Ind., says that while in a few localities individuals were
seen as early as May 28, in other places not distant they did not
emerge until June 4, and later.

Mr. Hopkins made a careful study of the dates of emergence in West
Virginia in 1897 in connection with Brood V, and found very consid-
erable variation in time of appearance both between the northern and
southern borders of the brood and between the lowest and liighest ele-
vations within the area covered by the brood. For the former a differ-
ence of nearly two weeks was indicated by the records, and iov the
latter a difference of nearly four weeks. Tliis variation, he says,
appears to be due to the difference of climate between the northern
and southern sections and ])etween low and higli elevaticms, in the
former eas(^ amounting to -V. degrees and in tlie latter to over 10
degrees in average summer temperature. lie deduces from liis obser-
vations, as a general rule, that there is about three and one-half da3"s
difference in tlie time of the first general appearance- of the Cicada for

90 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

each degree of difference in the average summer temperature, whetlier
it l)e due to latitude or elevation."

An interesting case of artificial acceleration in the appearance of
these insects is recorded 1)}^ Professor Riley as follows: Dr. E. S. Hull,
of Alton, 111., having placed some underground flues for forcing vege-
tables, the unnatural heat caused the cicadas to emerge by the 20th
of March and from this time on until May. Other instances of accel-
eration are given in the discussion of the subject of retardation or
acceleration in times of appearance as an explanation of the forma-
tion of the different broods. (See p. 24.)

Notwithstanding the difference in time of emergence in the above
citations,^ the fact nevertheless remains true of the great uniformit}^
evidenced in the time of emergence, namely, the last week in Ma}^, for
the great bulk of the territory covered by the different broods of the
Cicada, and tliis fact is one of the noteworthy features in the life liis-
tory of the insect.

The males precede the females by several days and disappear earlier
in the summer, both b}^ reason of being shorter lived and also on
account of their earlier appearance, so that it often happens that wliile
the woods are still filled with females active^ engaged in ovipositing,
the males are altogether absent and their songs are unheard.

DURATION OF THE ADULT STAGE.

Under normal conditions the Cicada remains in evidence in the
woods five or six weeks, occasional individuals occurring later, but as
a rule their disappearance is almost as sudden as their appearance and
is complete in the first weeks in July. IMr. Butler, \\Titing of the 1885
brood in Indiana, says that twenty-three days after the appearance of
the Cicada a perceptible decrease in numbers was observed, chiefly
from a disappearance of the males. On July 15, nine days after they
had disappeared from the river valley districts, they were still abun-
dant and active in more elevated situations. Mr. Davis, writing of
the brood of 1894 on Staten Island, says that by the third week in
June the cicadas commenced to die of old age, and yet the males were
still singing and the females were abundant in certain localities as
late as the 8th of July, while by the 15th of the same month all had
disappeared.

Mr. Hoj^kins found on the hills near MorgantoTvai, W. Ya., that the
dates of the Cicada appearance were about normal, the first adults
appearing on May 20, the first general appearance not coming, how-
ever, until the 24th. Cold weather intervening, there was a subsid-
ence again until the 30th, when they emerged again in enormous

"Bulletin 50, W. Va., Agric. Exp. Station, p. ]7.

err A DA huts, ok cones. 0]

j niiinlxM's. Oviposition l)(\iz:;m on \\\c \:U\\ olMimc. mid l>\- the 17lli of
the inoiitli the l(>a\(vs on ihc wounded twi^s coinincnccd !<» witlicr.
All had (lisaj)])(\ir(Ml hy I lie Kli of duly.

Ml/rilOl) Ol' KMKKCFACK.

Ill esca])iniz; from th(> soil t he ])n|)a l)uii-o\\s dii-eclK u|)\\ard, hiii nol
always in a straight line, and under normal condit ionsemerL::es direct I v,
leavint^ a small round hole about tho size of a man's little iin^^er.
While it is i^enerally true that they do not pierce {\w surface at all
until they are rijx^ for transformation, they seem to hav(> a fre(|ii(Mii
hahit of penetratin<i: nearly to the top of the ground some time heforc
they actually issue and remaining usually within their burrows or
sometimes emerging, but concealing themselves under logs, stones,
etc., awaiting the proper moment to come forth. ILsually throughout
the month of April they are to be found thus near thesui-face, as has
been recorded by many observers.

On the authority of Professor Potter the 10th of April is usually
the date for their a2:)pearance near the top of the ground. Here they
are often discovered by hogs and eaten with avidity, their holes com-
ing \\'ithin a quarter of an inch of the surface and penetrating down-
ward from 6 to 12 inches.

CICADA HUTS, OR CONES.

Under special or peculiar circumstances, not always easily explain-
able, the Cicada pupae construct little con'es, or chinmeys, of earth
above the surface of the soil, continuing and capping their holes, sev-
eral weeks before the time of issuing. In addition to the names
Cicada '' huts" or '' cones," these curious structures have been variously
termed ''towers," ''roofs," '^chimneys," "turrets," and "adobe
dwellings."

The earliest reference to them, if the writer mistakes not the sig-
nificance of the language, and one which has hitherto l)een overlooked,
is by Professor Potter." He refers to the "roofs of their tenements"
as being "neatly arched and so firmly cemented that water is never
found in them, although all of the surrounding grounds are over-
flowed and perfectly saturated," and, stating that "the locust is not
singular in this provision," he refers, in the same connection, to the
cra^-fish and other shellfish and some insects as building houses along
water courses, where the soil is wet, resembling "snuill chimneys,"
as a provision against "inundation and drowning."

The first defmite account of the Cicada huts we owe to Mr. S. S.
Rathvon, of Lancaster, Pa., who described them as occurring in
localities where the drainage was imperfect. He says:

o Notes on the Locusta, etc., pp. 17, 18 (1839).

92

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

A\'e had a series of heavy rains here about the time of their first appearance, and
in such places and under such circumstances the pupae would continue their galleries
from 4 to 6 inches above the ground, leaving an orifice of egress even with the sur-
face. In the upper end of these chambers the pupae would be found waiting their
approaching time of change. They would then back down below the level of the
earth (as at d, fig. 39) and, issuing forth from the orifice, would attach themselves to
the first oliject at hand and undergo their transformations in the usual manner.

Professor Riley had the accompamnno^ fiorure (fig. 39) made from
one of tlie chambers furnished by Mr. Katlivon. This chamber meas-
ured about 4 inches in length, mth a diameter oii the inside of five-
eighths inch and on the outside of 1^ inches.

As ^^'ill be later noted, the exit hole at the base of the turret in tliis
instance was probably abnormal, the insect issuing, as showTi by later
observers, almost invariably from a hole clawed through the summit
of the cone.

The next instance of the occurrence of these cones of which we have

a record is a rather remarkable
one, and is given by Prof. J. S.
Xewberr}'." These cones ap-
peared in May and June, 1877,
in a shallow cellar of a house
wliich had been erected on the
site of an old orchard at Rail-
way, N. J. The cellar had been
dug to the depth of about a
foot, and had been closed until
about the time of the emergence
of the cicadas, when it was
opened and the bottom was
found to be thickty beset wdth
mud cones or tubes from 6 to 8
inches high. The explanation
for these curious structures suggested by Professor Newberry is that
the cicadas, finding a dark chamber, were apparently attempting to
work up to dayhght. What is probabl}' the true explanation of
their occurrence will be given later. An excellent photograph of one
of these structures, which considerably exceeds 6 inches in length,
accompanies Professor Newberry's paper.

The references cited include all the records of the occurrence of
these cones up to 1894. In that year, however, these structures were
noticed in many localities in New York and New Jersey on the appear-
ance of Brood II, and excellent opportunities were afforded for their
study, advantage of wliich was taken by several competent observ-
ers who were so situated that careful examinations could be made.

^JS

Fig. 39.— Pupal galleries of the Cicada: a, front view;
e, orifice; h, section; c, pupa awaiting time of
change; d, pupa ready to transform. (After Riley.)

a School of Mines Quarterly, vol. 7, January, 1886, 2 pp.

Bui. 71, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agncultur

PLATb II.

(M(\\I)A IITTS, OK CONKS. <);]

The results of i1h\>^(* imcst iirat ions ]m\-e cleared up mucli of (lio
obscurity wliich lias liitheiio siiiM-oiiiulcd [\\oso ch^Nated huirows.

Tlie first persou to uote these structures in 1S!)4 was Mr. \Villiaiii
T. Davis, who n^ported tlieir occurrence^ iu A])ril on Staten Island,
New York, statinii; (hat the i)ui)a^ had heen found on the Sth of that
niontli un(k^r hoards on the edi:;e of a meadow, wliere tliey had Ixmmi
erecting cones of earth above the damp ground. In a later article
he says:

Oil the 22d of April many pup;p wore found in the woods alon*,' Willow I'look iiiidcr
stones, loj:.^, and the chips about stumps of trees cut down in winter. Nhuiy more
were without protection of this kind, and their presence was indicalcd hy ilic small
irregular cones of earth among the dead leaves. A heavy footfall near tlic cone waa
sufficient to cause the insects to retreat, l)ut if they were approached silently and
suddenly knocked over their constructors would l)e found witliiii.

Some of the cones were 3 inches high, but they did not average
more than 2 inches. The experience of Mr. Davis corroborates the
theories of Professor Potter and Mr. Ilathvon that the cicada cones,
occurring in moist situations, are designed to lift the insect above
such undesirable conditions.

Early in the spring of 1894 the attention of Doctor Lintner, tlie
New York State entomologist, w^as called by correspondents to the
occurrence of these cones and an investigation of the subject was
undertaken. A preliminar}" report was published in 1895,^ but his
final report was not published until May, 1897.^ In describing the
phenomenon in his Tenth Report, he says that the cones frequently
occurred in many thousands and occasionally hundreds of thousands
together, in some cases being intermingled wdth the ordinary open
burrows. At New Baltimore, N. Y., 16 miles south of Albany, as
early as the last week in April the pupae had brought up, apparently
from a considerable depth, masses of soft clay-like material and
molded it above the ground into conical and cylindrical structures
for their temporary' occupancy. In places the ground was almost
covered with them, as many as twenty-five being counted to the
square foot. The cones inclined at a considerable angle from the
peq:)endieular and measured from 2 to SI inches in lieight, and
the cham])er within was uniform in diameter with the hole in the
ground. In emerging the pupa made a round opening in the upper
part of the chamber for its escape.

In the Twelfth Keport cited, a long list of localities in New York is
given where the cones were found in 1894, togcMluM- with notes on the
character of the chambers and accomj^anying conditions of the soil,
and also on the method of their construction. Ouo of the ])lates
illustrating til is repo 1-1 is i-(>pr()diic('(| in this hnlldin (><'(' PI. 11). It

« Tenth Report Insects New York, pp. 420-42.3.

b Twelfth Rpix)rt Insccts'Now York, i)p. 270-280.

94 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

is a reproduction of a photograph of a small area of a cone-covered
district.

Two verv' ehiborate accounts of these structures, by Mr. Benjamin
Lander and Dr. E. G. Love, were pul)hshed in 1894-95, the authors
seeming very near the actual truth in their explanation of the
phenomenon. Mr. Lander describes the occurrence of the cones as
noted by him as follows:

On the 4th of May, 1894, while in the woods on the summit of South Mountain, at
Nyack, N. Y., I came upon a spot that had recently been burnt over. On this area I
observed vast quantities of the Cicada structures, entirely closed, averaging about 2^
inches in height, the aggregation ending at the very edge of the burnt section. So
thickly studded was the ground that often eight or ten would be found in the space
of a square foot; in one case I counted twenty-three in such a space. Subsequent
explorations showed that the Cicada city extended over an area of not less than GO
acres. Eight large aggregations were discovered by me on top of the Nyack hills and
the Palisades, covering many acres, and one near a stone quarry- at a lower elevation —
none of them in a place subject to overflow. Later, when only the ruins of the domes
remained, I visited two areas where large numbers had been found, one in ground
thinly covering massive sandstone and another hard by a quairj^ where the top soil
was thin.

The explanation offered by Mr. Lander is that the dome builders,
owing to the shallowness of the soil, determined either by the nearness
of the underlying rocks* or of a subsoil of a character preventing the
insects working in it effectively, had responded more quickly to the
heat of sprmg and early summer, and the pupae coming prematurely
to the surface closed and extended their burrows as a means of pro-
tection while awaiting maturity. The extension of the gallery above
the ground, though not suggested by Mr. Lander, may be explained
by the same instinct which impels the insect to burrow upward from
its subterranean cell.

In substantiation of his theory, Mr. Lander calls attention to the
weather records for March and April, 1894, which indicate an unusually
high temperature throughout the region of the domed burrows,
causing wdld plants to bloom a month before their ordinar\^ season.
The occurrence of these structures over burned areas, which would be
acted upon more quickly by the sun, supports his belief. Additional
support of the same kind is an Jnstance recorded by Prof. J. B.
Smith "" in a letter received from ^ir. J. H. Willets, of Port Elizabeth,
N. J. The latter states that "On April 24 a fire from the South
Jersey Railroad burned over several hundred acres of woodland,
leaving the earth bare. Six days afterwards these fresh holes and
raised tubes appeared, and yesterday the whole surface was literally
covered with them." In further description he says:

Imagine yourself standing out in the woods in south Jersey on 100 acres of recently
burned ground with millions and millions of raised tubes of new earth (clay ground)

oAnnual Report State Entomologist of New Jersey for 1894.

Ij'. 71 Bureau of Entompl'^rv V S Don*, of AiT'cu'ture

Platt III

CICADA HITS, UK CONKS. 05

raised al)(>V(> tlir surface from '2 to 1 iuclics and fnnu \\ [i> l' iii»lir> id ilinmciiT. sc-.ilrd
at the to]), with a liolc inside cxicndinij: down ii\ I lie cart li I'J inches at lc;i>i , ** * *
and Nou will sec mentally what 1 saw yc>!crday jihysic;dl_\ .

Ill this insl:inc(' also, on {\\c aiitlioiily of Mr. Landcf, lite Itirrcts
ended abrupt iy at {\\c (hIi^*' of {\\c l)iirii(>(l ar(>a. Tlic ollici- instances
of tlioso struc'tunvs ciivd by Mr. Lander also Ix^ar out his thcoiy. As
a rid(\ th(\v were locatcul on rocky clilVs witli nnifoi'inly .shallow soil or
hi other sitmitions w Ikmv the soil hi wliich tlie Cicada could work was
shallow. In the midst of one of tlu^ lar«j^est colonic^s a dcej) jj;iillv
occurred, .SOO or 400 feet wide, in which tlu^ soil was a d<M'|) loam.
Here tluM'c* wen^ no donuMl burrows, althougli tlie hills on cither side
were covered with them, and yet at tlu^ j^ropcn' season t]i(> cicadas
appeared in the ordinary way m this gully in almost incredibK ntnn-
bers, leaving their customary small holes of exit even with tlic stirfacc.

Some confirmatory records were obtainc^l by ^fr. Tjander in 1S9S.^

The occurrence of these cones, as described by Professor Xew])erry
(p. 92), is confirmatory of this theory, a shallow covering of soil over
pupa^ of a few inches only being left by the slight excavation made.
A similar instance occurred in the District of Colum])ia in connection
with Brood X in 1902, and represented the only occurrence of these
structures observed that year in this vicinity. Mr. William Tindall,
living on Washington Heights, at the northwest section of the city,
discovered some of these curious structures in his ^voodslKnl, and an
investigation of the premises developed the fact that this woodshed
was studded with Cicada cones of perfect construction, varying from
1 inch to 6 inches in height. Evidently a tree had stood ahout
where the woodshed w as built, and the cicadas had undergone their
development successfully in the ground beneath. All of those coming
to the surface outside of the shed escaped through simple holes with-
out any structures above ground, but every individual which came
up within the shed ])uilt a turret or cone. The ground floor of the
shed was somewhat moist, rain running under, but it was rather drier
than the ground outside, so that the cones could not have been built
on account of the moisture. There had perhaps been a slight remoA'al
of surface soil in this shed, bringing the cicadas nearer to the surface
and thus leading them to extend their galleries. Plate IH is from a
photogra})h tak(^n of the cones as they appeared in the shed, and
Plat(^ IV ilhistrat(>s half a dozen of these cones, nearly natural size,
two of which have been cut away to show the interior cliaracter of
the gallery.

Dr. E. G. Love, who also studied the pro])lem of the Cicada huts
very carefidly, agrees in the main with Vv. Lander, btit diflVrs some-
what in his explanation. As to the conditions of their occiuj'ence, he
writes as follows:

« Journal of the X. V. Knt. Soc, Vol. VII. Septend.er. IS!)!), pp. 212-21 1.

96 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

They are found in both wet and dry places; on the low and on the high ground;
singly and in colonies of many thousands. One hut, even in a damp soil, may be
surrounded by a dozen holes, from which the insects emerge without making any
huts, and often where we may expect to find them they are never seen.

Accepting the theory proposed by ^li\ Lander for the condition
found to exist in the Nyack region, Doctor Love does not deem it
entu'ely adequate, as he says:

The huts are sometimes found in places in which the soil is of great depth and which
are not especially exposed. Such was the case at Baychester, where only a few huts
were found, and these in deep soil and so well protected that it was only after careful
search that they were discovered.

He offers the supplementary explanation that since it is hardly
possible that the Cicada larvae can determine instinctively the dis-
tance to be traveled in their upward journey nor the time required
to accomplish it, which will vary with the nature of the soil to be
tunneled and the directness of the line followed in theii* excavations,
it may often happen that individuals reach the surface before they
are prepared to assume the adult condition, and the number so doing
would be greater when the conditions all united to favor a short
passage. In protected localities where the soil is deep the larvae Mng
near the surface will be more likely to emerge before their pupal
changes are complete, and would thus be led to the construction of
these cones. This, he says, would also explain theu' seeking tem-
porary shelter, as they do, under logs and stones, as has been pre-
viously noted.

The explanation offered for the construction of the Cicada cones by
Mr. Lander, as supplemented by Doctor Love, seems, on the whole,
satisfactory and adequate, so far as the conditions studied by these
wTiters are concerned. The conditions as described by ]Mi\ Rathvon
do not inform us as to the natm-e of the soil, but both in the Rathvon
case and the later instance described by Mr. Davis, the wet character
of the ground would seem to indicate a soil of a considerable depth.
This would seem to give a basis of reason for the explanation suggested
by Mr. Rathvon and accepted by Professor Riley. A complete
hypothesis, therefore, seems to be in a union of the explanations
offered, namely, that the cone-building habit is induced either by a
shallow soil, proximit}^ of the pupae to the sm-face, or conditions of
unusual warmth which brings the pupae to the sm'face in advance
of then normal time, and more rarely to unfavorable conditions of
excessive moisture. The mud caps are to protect the burrow from
cold until the time of issuing arrives.

The explanation of the occmTence of these structures on hi^h
gi-ound suggested by Professor Riley is certainly untenable. He
surmised tliat the individuals constructing cones in such situations
did so because impelled by habit that had become fixed and hered-

B.I 71 , BuroTj 'if EnrormoTicrv II S Dept. of Ag:rtci)'ttite

Plate IV.

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1

CICADA llCrs, (»K CONKS. <)7

itarv in tho course* ol" ;i loiii;- period of cxislciuv' in low wci sii luii inns.
The strict limitation of these <'oiies to ar(>as |)i-e.s(Mil iii-j- |)(MMili;ir
conditions thoi-ouixldy dis|)i-o\'ed this theoiv.

Sonic iu)tcs on th(* eluirncter of the luits max ])e appended. The
fact tluit th(M-e is no e.xit orilic(> at the uM-onnd. a> deseiihed h\ M i-
]{allivon, is conlinned l)v th(* stmhevs inadt* hv the ohserxcis cited
above, the insect invariably clawinii: its ^vay out at lhet(.p. Mr.
Lan(l(M- notes one instance^ wbc^re the pupal sht^ll i-emaiiKMl altacheil
and stuclv in the suinniil of \\\c l)inTo\\, the mature insect haxiii'j"
escapcMh According: to Mr. Lander, also, tlu* huts are probabK con-
structiMJ at nii^ht, the insect takini:: advantai^c* of th(^ moist aii-. whic'i
would pr(>\(Mit the too rapid dryini:' of the earth ns(>d iu iiiakini: the
little tower and also of the didicate soft insect itself. The chambers
niv constructed with soft ])ellets of clay or nnid 1)rou_ii"ht up from below
and pr(*ss(Ml (irmly into place. On examination il will ])o s(hmi that
ih(\v are well rounded and rather hrnily coni])acled within, alth()UL:;h
the marks of th(^ chiws of the pupir are usually visible and leaves and
slicks ar(* oft(>n incor[)orated in the w^alls. No one hasjictually
observed the insects while at work on these structures, and, although
Mr. Lander repeatedly broke off a number of cones to see if they would
be repaired, the insect failed to do so whik* l)einii: watcluMl. Subse-
([uently the l)r()ken portions were found to be recapped, ])ut at some
little distance ])elow the broken edge. In this connection may 1)e
(|uot(Ml the observation of Mr. Law^ton, of X^^ack, cited l)y Doctor
Lintner. Mr. Lawton found that in every case except one the j)upa
repaircMl the cone soon after the injury by bringing- up pellets of nuid
and roofing over the broken portion about half an inch from the toj).
The repairs were begun on one side and gradually extended over the
o^xMiing horizontally, there being no attempt to form a dome-shaped
roof. In some instances the repairing of the chamber began within
a (piarter to half an hour after injury had been caused, and within
three or four hours tlie opening was entirely closed over. On one
occasion a pupa w^as caught w^ith a pellet of mud in iis <laws.

The fact that these cones had been noted on only two or thre(^ occa-
sions prior to 1884 led to the belief that they \\('re \(M\ rare and
abnornnd. Their extraordinary abundance in 1 Ss ! in connection with
Brood II would seem to indicate that they are by no ni(>aiis as rare as
heretofore supposed, and itniay be inferred that the absence of records
is <imply due to the lack of examination, especially in localitie-^ where
the conditions would Ix* favorable for their appearance. This \'\v\v is
confirmed by the announcement in a recent letter from Mr. Davis of
the discoven' of a cone .Vpril .'30, 1808, c>n Staten Island hcdonging to
Brood VI, which appeared that year. Tie savs that th(« con(> was just
appearing above the dead leaves, which, with the gromid also, were
81117— No. 71—07 7

98 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

''soaked after tlie wet days just past.'' This ])elief is participated in
l)y I)()ctx)r Lintner in his last report on this interesting subject." It
should not be forgotten, however, that the great mass of the insects
emerge ^^dthout making any superficial construction whatever.

THE ACT OF TKAXSFOmiATlOX.

The j)henomenon connected with the transformation of the period-
ical Cicada from the pupal to the adult stage is a ver}- interesting one
and always fills the observ^er with considerable wonderment. .Vs
remarked by !Mr. Butler, when these insects emerge from the ground
it is usually wath a rush, and a Hvely scramble ensues for each eleva-
tion near the point of their emergence. Trees, bushes, weeds, poles,
stumps, fences — in fact, everything upon which they can get above the
level of their recent homes is ascended. The instinct which has
caused them to burrow to the surface of the ground still drives them
in the same direction upward, and they seem to make up in activity
for their long subterranean periods and their weeks of waiting near the
surface when the time has finally arrived for their emergence. The
different steps undergone b}' the insects in transforming from the
pupal to the adult stage have been perhaps most accurately described
by Professor Riley, as given below. ^ The plate accompanying his
description is reproduced in this bulletin as a frontispiece.

The unanimity ^vitll Avliicli all those which rise within a certain radius of a given tree
crawl in a bee line to the trunk of that tree is most interesting. To witness these pupae
i:i such vast numbers that one can not step on the ground without crushing several
swarming out of their subteiTanean holes and scrambling over the ground, all converg-
ing to the one central point, and then in a steady stream clambering up the trunk and
diverging again on the branches, is an experience not readily forgotten and affording
good food for speculation on the nature of instinct. The phenomenon is most satis-
factorily witnessed where there is a solitary or isolated tree.

The pupo3 (frontispiece, figs. 1 and 2) begin to rise as soon as the sun is hidden behind
the horizon, and they continue until by 9 o'clock the bulk of them have risen. A few
strag-jlers continue until midnight. They instinctively crawl along the horizontal
branches after they have ascended the trunk, and fasten themselves in any position,
but preferably in a horizontal position on the leaves and twigs of the lowermost
branches. In about an hour after rising and settling, the skin splits down the middle
of the thorax from the base of the clypeus to the base of the metanotum (frontispiece,
fij. 3), and the forming Cicada begins to issue. ■' * *

The colors of the forming Cicada are a creamy white, with the exception of the reddish
eyes, the two strongly contrasting black patches on the prothorax, a black dash on each
of the coxse and sometimes on the front femora, and an orange tinge at the base of
v.-ings.

There are five marked positions or phases in this act of evolving from the pupa shell,
viz, tho straight or extended, the hanging or head do^\mward, the clinging or head
upward, the flat winged, and, finally, the roof winged. In about three minutes after
the shell splits the forming imago extends from the rent almost on the same plane with

a Twelftli Report Insects New York, p. 283.

b Annual Kept. Dept. of Agriculture, 1885, pp. 237, 238.

Bui. 71, Bureau of Entomology. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

Empty Pupal Shells of the Periodical Cicada Clinging to Leaves, Brood X,
1902. Wash'ngton, D. C. Reduced. Original, i

NrMI?KRS AM) LOCAL L 'S'i'KI lU'TloN. 99

tlio pupa, "with all iis iiu'inlx'rs sirai.Lrlil and still held Wy their lijjs wiihiii the cxiiviuiu
(frontispiece, lii;. \>. The iinai^o then i^'radiially hends haekwanl and the n»end)ers
arc loosened and sei)arated. W ilh ihe lip of (he aixlonieii held wilhin the exuvinni,
the rest of the hody han^s exiended ni ri<ihi angles from ii . and ifmains in this position
from ten to thirty seconds or uiorc. llie wiiiu' j>ads sci)a rating, aixl llw fnml pair sin 'lei i-
ing at right angles from the body and ol)li(piei\- crossiiH: ilie hind jiair i iidnl is|)iecc.
figs. 5 and <>). TIu'N' tiien graduall\- swell, and « luring' all I his I inic I he 1cl:s are Kcconi-
ing firmer and assuming the ultimali' positions. Sud(h'niy ihc iniaL'-o Ixaids u|)\\ard
with agood deal of effort, and, clinging with its legs (o the hrsi (.hjeci rcacjied. w heilwr
leaf, twig, or its own sh(>ll. withdraws entirely from the exuxiuiu, and Jianirs id ihe
lirst lim<' with its head u|) i front ispiecc, Ults. 7 and Si. Ndw the winu^ iicrci^pi ihly
-well (frontispiece, iig. 8) and expand until they are full\- .-trelclnMl and haiii: flatly
o\'er the back, perfectly transparent , with heautil'id white \ i-ining i frcmt i>i)iecc, \'\<^. 'h.
As they dry they assume the roofed position (^fronlisi)iece, Iig. !()», and duriiiLr ihf ni-hl
the natural colors of the species are gradually assumed ( front is])iece. liir. 1 I >.

The time ie(|uired in the Iransformation \ai-ies, and. thongli t'^r the .-|»Iiitin- <>{ the
skin and the lull stretching of the wings in the Hal posit ion the l inie is usually alxiuL
twenty minutes, it may be. under precisely similar conditions. h\-e oi-sjx limesa.s long.
But there arc few more beautiful sights than to see this fresh forming Cicada ]u all the
different positions, clinging and clustering in great numbers to iheouisidf l^wii- haves
and branches of a hirge tree. In the moonlight such a tree looks lor all the wDild as
though it were full of beautiful white blossoms in various stages of expansion.

A luoi-o realistic idea of llic important stages in this transformation
is furnished })erhaps hy a series of })lioto^raphs kindly given to tlie
writer 1)y .Mr. Robert A. Kemp, of iM'ederick, :\[(1. (.see PI. VT). A
more natural j^osition is given if figs. 1 and 2 are turned so as to make
the twigs p(Tp(Mi(li('u]ar rather than oblique.

THE ADULT INSECT AND ITS HABITS.

NUMBERS AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION.

In the ease of a well-esta])lished })rood under favorable conditions,
the enorii.ous mimbers of these insects in the soil is most vividly
conveyed b} tlie accoiupanyiiig ])hotograph (fig. 40) taken by ^Ir.
Kemp in 1902 (Brood X), near Frederick, Md. Within the foot-
s(|uare area in the center of the photograph are no less than S4 "^
openings, wbicli woidd indicate for the ground surrounding a I'aiily
good-sized tree the emergence of from 30,000 to 40,000 Cicada ])ii])cC. ^

Mr. McCook took ihe trouble to count or estimate^ the burrows
under various trees. I'nder one tree lie counted O.OOO burrows, and
under another, a small birch, the numl)er of exit holes was esti-
mated at 22,500; and sinc(^ many of tli(^ ])urrows interlaced under
irround and several insects eniersxed iVoni tlie same opcninLT. e\'en
these figures do not indicate the actual nimdx'r. In another case
()f)S openings were counted in a sj)ace 10 by 4 feet, and 17 distinct
openings in a sj)ace (> inches scpiare.

Mr. Davis, referring to Brood II on Staten Island in 1894, says:

About some of the trees the pupa shells became so numerous that they completely
hid the ground itself. At dusk the sound of the many insects climbing up the tree

100

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

trunks was (iuite audible, particularly vigorous pupie ascending the trees to the
height of 30 feet.

l^lato X, sliowing einpt}^ pupal shells clinging to leaves, still further
illustrates the large number of these msects which often emerge.

As noted ])y Mr. Farinsley, of Louisville, Ky., the cicadas do not
appear very numerously on tops of mountains within an infested area,
})ut gradually decrease in numbers as one ascends, the greater scarcity
l)eing noticeable both to the eye and the ear, the rattling chonis
growing less and less strong.

On the authority of Dr. Hopkins, the dinunishing of the Cicada in
numbers as one ascends to higher elevations is apparently not always
true. Dr. Hopkins describes driving for a day through theCicachi
district of AYest Virginia in 1897 on the occasion of the reappearance
of the 17-year Brood V, and states that as he approached the eastern

e V «

^ 9

•9 - - . V r - -

• ♦^

. ff'

/'•.•

<>.- *-

• - V

>\^.:i

Fig. -10.— Exit holes of the periodical Cicada at surface of soil. The rule shows the large number of
holes occurring, in this instance, in a square foot of ground

borders of Preston County the cicadas became more numerous, and
as the mountain west of Cranesville was ascended the Cicada was
found, at an elevation of 2,600 to 2,800 feet, to occur in far greater
numbers than at an}^ point previously traversed. The leaves and
t\vigs of the trees were literally covered ^^ith the insects, and the twigs
were bending from their weight. This point seems to have been the
eastern border of the swarm, and a few rods farther up the cicadas
l^ecame xery scattered and soon ceased altogether.

They often also appear in greatest number in rather well-defined
districts within the general range of the brood, or, in other words,
arc irregular in local distribution. This variation in abundance is
due in some cases to difl'erences in the character of the soil and in
others, perhaps, to varying surface conditions, as of timber growth,
etc. They j)refer, apparently, white-oak groves, and are most abun-

Bui. 71, Bureau of Entomology, U, S. Dept, of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

Th£ TranoFormationi of the Emerged Periodical Cicada.

1.— Pupa ready for transfomintion. 2.— Adult beginuint,' to issue frfiiu pujial shell. :'..— .\dult
nearly free" from pupal shell, i. — Freshly tfansff)rnie<l adult, tiie coloring imniMture.
.?.— Adult, several hours after transformation, the eolorinj; iiiiituri-. About nntural size.

I-OOI) IlAlU'l'S (»K 'riiK ADlI/r. 101

dant whoro IIk^ liuul is lii<j:li mid well drained and ilir -xiil a lidi.
sand}' loam, wilh a ^andv oi- ^ol't clav >nl)>(>il. Tlic iiTcLiulai-il \ of
local (list rihnl ion is coidiiMncd also hv llic cxixMicncc of Mi-. l)a\i^ on
Slat(Mi Island, who ri^porls of the IS'.) I hi-ood ilmt llic cicada^ were
very rariMn sandy di>t rid s, \\liil(> in dist I'icls !(>>> >a n(l\ lli(>\ appcarcil
l)y llionsands. 1 1(> says also ( lial lli(\\ occnrrcd l)\ millions on ccrlain
liills and in (-(M-lr.in l)ils of woodland, yd al a sliorl di.^lancc a\\a\.
under a|)])ar(Muly nnallered conditions, tlicy wcic \(m\ xaniiix
re{)resent(Hl.

The local abundance of the Cicada in w cll-dermed dislri(l> i^ ht
be explaincul by tlu^ fact, ali-eady nol(Ml. that the winded inject is
sluggish and scatters but little from tlie point of emergence, which.
with favoring circiin.stances, tends constantly to concentrate lather
than to scatter the sj^ecies.

THE FOOD HAUITS OF THE ADULT INSECT.

At tlu* timi^ of the wi-iting of Bulletin 14 ihc obscM-vat ions of many
entomoloirists who had studied th(^ ])eriodical Cicada were practically
in accord that the taking of food in the adult stage was not a nece.s-
sarv feature of the aerial life of the insect and was of comparatively
ran^ occurrcMice. feeding to a limited extent had been shown, how-
ever, by the ob.servations of Walsh and l\il(\v," and an additional
instance is noted l)y Kilev in Bulletin S.'' The ol)servations by Mr.
Davis'' were n^ferred to in Bulletin 14, reporting that the black
birch and sweet gum are favorite food plants, and that it is not
uncommon to see rows of cicadas along the branches of these trees
with theii- beaks (Mubedded in tlu^ bark. Various otluu' entomolo-
gists had noted a little feeding, ])ut the opinion was general that the
feeding habit was unusual and not necessary to the insect. State-
ments had also -l^een made that such feeding was limited to the
female, and that the male could take no food inasmuch as its digestive
organs were rudimentary. No special harm from fcM^ling, at any
rate, had ex'ci- been noticed, e\'(Mi whei'e the in.sect occurred in count-
le>s myriads.

\\"\\\\ the recui-i-(Mice of Brood X in P.tO'J Ml". A. Ti. (^naintance.
then entomologist of the Maryland experiment .station, had his
attention callcfl to the feeding of tlu^ periodical Cicada and made a
thoi'ough stnd\ of the subject.'' A c()rresj)()ndent called the atten-
tion of Ml-, (^uaintance to the feeding of th(^ Cicada in his oichard,
and an examination of a local orchard confu'ine(l lhi> fact, which he
afterwards noticed in \arion> localities in Mai\land. Cicadas in

o American Entomologist, Vol. I, p. 67, 1868.

ft Bui. 8, o. P.. Div. Ent.. U. S. Dept. A.«,Tic., p. 14.

''Natural Science Ass^n. Staten Island, 4, September, ISDt, pp. .3.3 .35.

d P.ul. :•,:. 11. .-.. Div. Km.. V. S. \)c\>\. A<rric.. pp. ;)0-94, PI. I.

102 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

numbers together were often observed w^th their beaks stuck straio^ht
down atrainst tlie bark in the attitude of feeding, and in numerous
instances the insects were observed when disturbed extracting the
thread-hke setae from the plant tissue. Early in the morning or
late in the evening also the limbs of young apple and pear trees
were frequently c[uite wet mth sap which had exuded from the
punctures made wdth the setae of the cicadas. This exudation of
sap was frequently noticed to immediately follow the withdrawal of
the sucking apparatus of the insect to such an extent as to run down
the trunk a distance of 4 or 5 inches.

Feeding was also observed in forest trees growing near the college
buildings by means of an opera glass. In the case of forest trees
the insects commonly go to the upper branches and hence are not
near enough for observation from the ground, a fact which may
account somewhat for the failure hitherto to have observed this habit
of taking food.

Professor Quaintance also made cross sections of the wood, show-
ing that the setae had actually penetrated deeply into the sapwood
of the trees. Both sexes were shown to feed to an equal extent,
and dissections of the insects themselves showed the stomach to be
distended to several times its usual size with sap taken from the trees,
and the alimentary canal w^as found to be perfect in both sexes and
not rudimentary in the male, as hitherto believed. The intestine
was very minute, but could be traced from the oesophageal to the anal
opening.

Professor Quaintance' s observations undoubtedly indicate that the
Cicada in the adult stage normally takes food in the same way as do
other hemipterous insects, and the fact that when these insects are
kept in confinemeiit for a few days without food they invariably die
would seem to indicate the necessity of liquid food. Mr. Quaintance
himself, however, queried if the amount of feeding might not vary
witli difl'erent broods; and that the Cicada necessarily and always
takes food has not yet been fully established.

The taking of food by the Cicada at any rate seems to cause the
trees normalty very little injury and is not accompanied apparent!}^
by any special poisoning of the wood which causes the death or
sloughing off of bark, as is more or less the case with the San Jose
scale, for example; and the belief expressed in Bulletin 14 may be
perhaps adhered to, that, so far as real injury is concerned, the feeding
in the adult stage is a negligible feature.

THE CICADA AS AN ARTICLE OF FOOD.

Tlie fact has alread}^ been alluded lo tliat the common name
''locust," given by the early colonists to this insect, was undoubtedly
owin<r to a confusion of the Cicada witli tlu^ miirratorv locust of the

THK CICADA AS AN AKTKM.K OK 1<()()|). 10,'^

Orient, which lias \)cc'[\ an article of (li(>t IVoin the earliest liino. and
IS so (nnployed at the |)I"(\s(MiI (la\ . in \ari()us places in iiortliein
Africa and (nisIcmmi Asia. A similar locust is also now hiirlilN esteemed
as a food article in \\\o island of Mada<j:ascar. All of these locusts
belonjj^, however, to the (dass of inscM'ts knoANii as ;j:i-assho|)i)eis. and
on this contiiUMit the l\o(d\y Mountain ij:i':i'^'^ho|)|)er oi' locust has also,
as is W(dl known. \)cou lon^ uscmI as an a!'ti(de of food l)\- cei'tain
Indian tribes.

That the Cicada was eaten by the I'cd men of AmcM-ica, both before
and aftei" the cominix of th(> colonists, is indicated in a memorandum,
(hited 171"), l(d"t by the livv. Andreas Sandel, of Philadelphia, who,
referring to the us(^ of locnsts as food in (>astei-n Asia, states also
that the Cicada is so used by the Indians. Dr. Asa Kit( h corroborates
this statement, giving as his authority Mr. W. S. Kol)ertson. who
informs him ''that the Indians make the difTerent s])ecies of Cicada
an article of diet, every year gathering quantities of them and \)vv-
paring them for the table by roasting in a hot oven, stirrini: them
until they are well browned."

No ])ractical test was made with the Cicada as an article of human
food until the experiments instituted by Professor Riley and cai i ied
out by Doctor Howard in the early summer of 1885. T\w follow ing
is an account of Doctor Howard's experiments:

^^'i^ll the aid of the Doctor's (Riley's) cook he had prepared a i)lain stew, a tliick
milk stew, aiul a broil. The Cicadae were collected just as they emerged Iroiu i)up8e,
and were thrown into cold water, in which they remained overnight. Tin y were
cooked the next morning, and served at breakfast time. They imparled a disiiiut
and not unpleasant flavor to the stew, but were not at all palatable thcinsc lv( s, as
they were reduced to nothing but bits of flabby skin. The broil laek( d substance.
The most i)alatable method of cooking is to fry in batter, when they remind one of
shrimps. They will never prove a delicacy."

Mi\ T. A. Keleher, w ho sampled some of the dishes above (hvscribed,
has infoiiiKMl the wiiter that he found the cicadas fried in batter to
be most j)alatal)le, and tliat he mn(di preferred them to oysters or
shrimps.

The great liking manifested by vaiious animals for the j)ui)ce before
and after they have emerged and for the transforming adults has
already been referred to. Doctor Hildreth, wTiting in 1830, says:

W'ldb- here ihey served for food for all of the cairii\(ii(ius and iuscet-catiiig animals.
Hogs eat them in preference to any other food; s(iiiiircls, l)ir<ls, domestic fowls, etc.,
fatten on them. So much werc^ thoy attracted by ibe ('icadjiB that very few birds
were seen around our <:ardeiis diiriut,' their ((iiii inuaiHc and our cherries, etc.,
remained unmolested.'^

«Proc. Ent. 8oc. Washington, V<.1. 1. p. i'!).
fc Journal <.f S.ieiice. IS'M). Vol. .Will, p. 47,

104 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

He also states that wlien the cicadas first leave the earth they are
phimp and full of oily juices; so much so that the}" are employed in
making soap.

^Ii". John Bartram, writing of the brood which appeared near Phila-
delphia in 1749, and referring to the pupae as they appeared near the
surface of the ground toward the end of April, says that they were then
fidl of a thick white matter like cream and that hogs rooted up the
ground a foot deep in search of them. Dr. Potter refers briefly to the
fact that great numbers of them are ^'devoured ])y hogs, squirrels,
all kinds of poultr}", and birds, which live and fatten on them.''

That they are sometimes considered to be poisonous when made an
object of food is indicated in the following quotation from Doctor
Phares. He says:

Many species of domestic and wild birds, quadrupeds, and other animals eat the
cicadas greedily and with impunity. In 1859 they were said to have killed a few
hogs in Amite County. They have no poison about them, yet it is not to be wondered
at that an occasional hungiy hog or other animal, eating very largely of such food,
should become sick or CA'en die. Dogs become very fond of them. One evening I
watched a bitch catching and eating so many that I expected her to become sick from
her rich feast of fat things, but she was in no way injured. Indeed, I have uf^v^r sct-n
any animal injured or otherwise.

As has been indicated elsewhere, the liking of domestic animals and
birds, especially the English sparrow, for the cicadas, both in their
newly emerged condition and in the mature state, is one of the most
potent influences in exterminating or greatly reducing the abundance
of this insect in thickly settled districts.

The use of the newly emerged and succulent cicadas as an article of
human diet has merely a theoretical interest, because, if for no other
reason, they occur too rarely to have any real value. There is also
the much stronger objection in the instinctive repugnance which all
insects seem to inspire as an article of food to most civilized nations.
Theoretically, the Cicada, collected at the proper time and suitably
dressed and served, should be a rather attractive food. The larvae
have lived solel}^ on vegetable matter of the cleanest and most whole-
some sort, and supposedly, therefore, would be much more palatable
and suitable for food than the oyster, with its scavenger habit of
living in the muddy ooze of river bottoms, or many other animals
which are highly prized and which have not half so clean a record as
the periodical Cicada.

OVIPOSITION AND ITS EFFECT QN THE PLANT.

The Cicada becomes almost perfectly hardened and mature during
the first day of its aerial life, and does not wait many dai's before
beginning the important business of its existence in the perfect stage,
namely, depositing the eggs for another brood. Courtship occupies
a ('()ni])arativoly short time, and the sexes are found together usually

TLANTS SELKOTEI) VOK ()\ I I'osi TloN. l()o

witliin a wools aflcM- tho oiiior^cMico of th(> firsi iii(li\i(lu;ils. W'illiiii
two weeks [iw ogi^ piinct ur(\s Ix^^in lo apponi- 1um-o and llici-o !i) lli(>
tAsigs. From this tiino on oviposit ion j)rocoo(ls \(m\ lapidK. and
thousands of individuals may ofton he noted working at the sunie>
tmic oil the same tree.

PLANTS SKLKCTKI).

Tlio fact tliat the Cicada is not esj)eeially clioice in its selection n\'
trees in wliicli to ])lac(» its oi^^^s is patent to any careful ohsci-xci',
ahliouirh a prefereuee is *^enorally shown for oaks and liickories, and
the aj)])le among tho fruit trees. Any phmt which j)resonts itself is,
however, accepted, often herbaceous ones and occasionally evergreen>,
although the sticky resinous sap of the latter seems to he distasteful
to these insects. No careful, com})loto list of j)lants in which they o\ i-
posit has been made, although several observers have made rather
extensive lists, notably Mr. Butler and Mr. Davis, the latter having
observed the cicadas laying their eggs in between seventy and eighty
trees, bushes, and herbaceous plants on Staten Island in ISDl, and
states also that he had evidenth^ not nearly reached the liniits of
plants. In some cases even the large petioles of plants, like the horse-
chestnuts, had been oviposited in. A list of plants could be given
which have been put on record, but it would have but little value, as
in every district in wliich they appear they will oviposit in practi-
cally all plants which come their way, with the exception of pines, as
already stated, which are ordinarily exempt.

That they are not very choice in this matter is shown by a case of
faulty instinct reported by Mr. Hunter Nichols, who observed a female
to alight on the iron rod of a bridge and attempt to insert her eggs,
even extruding them to the number of seven, some of which remained
attached to the rod and the others falling to the ground. Other
similar cases of eiTor on the part of the insect are noted by ^Lr. Davis.
In one instance a female had attempted to insert her eggs in the
very hard stem of catbriar (Smilax i-otund [folia) and in another ]^lace
had thrust her ovipositor entirely tlirough the stem of a plant only to
find that it was liollow.

The part of the plant selected for a recoptack* for tho eggs is almost
invariably the twigs of tho previous year's growth. When larger liml)s
are chosen, as occasionally happens, the female evinces her dislike for
them by constructing only a nest or two instead of tho long series of
slits which aie usually characteristic of her work on limbs of newer
grow til.

106

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

RESULT TO THE PLANT OF OVIPOSITION.

The effect on the pkmt of the cutting of the smaller twigs by the
female in depositing her eggs has been often described, and is apt to

be especially noteworthy and disas-
trous in the case of such favorite trees
as the oak, hickory, and apple, and in
the case of the latter, especially in
young orchards surrounded by woods,
or in recent clearings. (See fig. 41.)
The weakening of the twigs by the
punctures causes many of them to be
partly broken ofl' by the winds, and
the brown, withered leaves are con-
spicuous for the remainder of the .sum-
mer. Many of the twigs break oil en-
tirely and fall to the ground, and the
general twig* pruning which results is
often of considerable extent, giving
the forests, as sometimes described, a
gloomy appearance, or as though
scorched by fire, from the number of
the extremities of twigs thus injured.
With large shade trees,
and particularly trees
in forests, the damage
is not often excessive,
and the recovery is
usualty complete, or
nearly so, within two
or three years. With
fruit trees and nursery
stock, on the other
hand, and especially on
newh^ cleared ground
or in the vicinity of
forests or groves where
the Cicada abounds, the injury is apt to be very con-
siderable.

The following extract from a letter from Mr. Wil-
liam G. Wa^me, of Seneca Falls, N. Y., illustrates
the injury sometimes experienced. Referring to
the Hudson River Yalle}^ brood, appearing in 1826

They destroyed the fruitage of the orchards almost comph^ely. Nearly all the
tender branches of the trees were so wounded in the deposit of the eggs that they

Fig. 41.— Egg punctures of periodical Ci-
cada: a, twig showing recent punctures
from front and side, and illustrating man-
ner of breaking; b, twig showing older
punctures, with retraction of bark and
more fully displaying the arrangement
of fibers. Natural size (after Riley).

Fig. 42.— Twig show-
ing scars from
punctures after the
.>;( cond year. (After
Riley.")

lie savs:

RESULT TO THK IM.ANT <>K < )\ I i'dSI TK >N. 107

])roko from the main stems in tlic followini; ycarand fell i.. t lie i^roiind. i Inn fomplcicly
donudintj the tr(M>s of their fruit-lx'arini: liranchcs."

Peacll, ])oar, niul ;ii)j)I(> (r(H's sullVi- most, and even ^napcxiiics ai'<»
often badly injuivd. Witli IViiit trees in vijrorous coiidil ion and lmow-
in^:: rapidly. howevcM-. \\w wounds IkmiI in a few years so thai often the
scars can scarcely he (l(d(H'l(sl; l)ii(, as shown hy Dr. A. I). Hopkins,
witli recently transplanted trees, the growth of which is slow, and
with the fruit inir and t(M-niinal branches of old trees which lack vi^or,
the wounds often do not lu^il for many years.

AnotluM- form of injury has been cliar<j:ed to tliis insect ])\' some
of the earlier writers, viz, that ixHvr iillin<^ the twiirs with her cl-^l:
clusters tlu^ f(Mnal(> completely or partly severs it, causino; it to break
oH* and die. This o])inion is totally without foundation in fact, and is
undoubt(Hlly based ])artly on the observation that many twiirs are
broken by tlu^ winds and ])artly on a confusion of th(> work of the
Cicada with that of certain ()ak-])runin<^ beethvs, which after ovij)osit-
inir in the brandies, cut them nearly off, causino^ tliem to fall to the
irround, thus furnishinir their larva? the dead or dyin^^ wood in whicli
they develo}).

The absurdity of the theory that the Cicada ])ur]K)S(dy cuts the
limbs to weaken them and cause tluMu to break off is shown by the
fact that wherever a liml) is broken, throui^h the weakenin^^ from
excessive puncturing or other causes, and falls to the ground, th(> dry-
ing up of the limb invariably causes the eggs to shrivel and die. The
breaking off of limbs, therefore, is purely accidental, and is coniined,
so far as due to the Cicada, to the smaller terminal twigs which have
])een too thickly oviposited in, the female by so doing defeating h(>r
own object. The ])r()portion of such broken and fallen twigs, whil(>
often great (^nough to give the tree a deadened a])]Knirance, is small
in com])arison with the many thicker and stouter limbs w hick remain
attached, and ])robably more than 90 per cent of all the (''^iX^^, and
more than 99 per cent of thosc^ that idtimatcdy hatch, are laid in
twigs which never 1)reak off. though often much injureck A \'cry
few young may come from twigs which are ])artly hi-okcn oil", but
in such instances the flow of sap has not Ixh'ti entir(dy sto|)p(Mk

The aft(>r efl'ecl of the cgLT l)unctures on the twigs is shown in the
deformity which characterizes their subsecpient growth. In the
process of healing the punctures tisually assume a wart or knot-kke
a{)pearanc('. a> reprcscnte(l in liie accompanying illustration of an
apj)le twig (tig. 42 j. The (dh'ct of |)unctures in hard-mai)le twigs after
the lapse of seventeen years is shown in fig. 4.'^), and on various ])lants
in Plate I (seep. k_M. t hese ilhist rat ions being kindly loaned me by Dr.
Hopkins.'^ Though ultimate!}' healing over exteriorly with the growth

ri T.intner. Second Report Insectn New York. p. 177.
b Bulk-tin .50. \V. Va. Agi-. Exp. Sta., Pis. II and IV.

108

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

of the suiroundinfi: wood, there remains in the center of the twig a
dead spot, and the wliite ghstening egg shells of the escaping larvae
liave been found in place six years after they have been inserted in
the twig by the female Cicada.

Considerable danger follows the work of the Cicada, in that as long
as the wounds remain open or as dead spots on the limbs they are not
only a source of weakness in the case of winds, but the}' offer attract-
ive situations for the attacks of various wood-boring insects. If left
to themselves the limbs migh"^entirely recover, except for the scars,
but the borers gaining entrance through these spots complete the work

Fir,, -i:^.— Periodical Cicada scars in hard-maple twigs after seventeen years. (Hopkins.)

of destruction wliicli the Cicada began. Furthermore, such open
wounds or pockets ui the twigs of fruit trees Doctor Hopkins has
shown to be favorite points of attack for the woolly aphis {Schizon-
cura lan'igera Ilausm.), the presence of which not only prevents the
wounds from healing but causes additional abnormal growth, adding
considerably to the injury to the branches, and making them more
lia])le to tlie attacks of other insects.

METHOD OK I\SKin'IX(; 'I'HK KOt;

()<)

Miynioi) OF iNSKiMiNc iiii; i:(;(;s,

Tlu* work of the fiMuale Cicada in insciM iiii: li<*i' c.irirs is an iiilci-csl iiiix
subject for study, and so littl(> docs slic mind tlic |)i-cscncc of an
observer that \\\c op(M-atiou can l)e closely w atched w itlu)nt hei- exhib-
iting: any alarm. 'V\\o position taken is almost in\aiial)ly with the
head u|)\vai\l or directed toward tlu* tij) of the l)i-anch, the work bciiiL:
steadily pn)se('ut(Ml in that direction. AVhen her course is inlcirercci
with by th(> occurr(Mic(> of side shoots, instead of mo\ iiiLT 1" <>iie >ide
or the other she reverses luu' i)osition and thus (wtends her row of
puuctun^s iu a straiirht liu(* completcdy to the base of the inlei\ (mhiil^
shoot. 'r\\o bi'anch .selectcMl is oi'dinarily of a si/e which the fcm.-ilc
can surround and chisj) "firmly with her le^^s to ;j;ive hei- the >tron<^
attachment necessary to enal)le her to force her ovi|)osiloi- into the
woody t issuers.

The exact method of nnikinjj: the ei:^ (issure and deposit im: ih<> <\Lr,ii:s
has hitherto, in the
main, been either
ven' l)riefly referred
to, or tlie actions of
the ins(>ct have been
inaccurately inter-
preted. The (h'scrip-
tion of this process,
hitherto i^enerally ac-
cepted and (pioted.
is that given by Doc-
tor Harris, substan-
tially as follows:
Raising her body
somewhat above the
twig, the point of her
ovipositor is brought to bear on the bark at an angle of 45 degrees,
and is thrust slowly and repeatedly into the hark and wood, th(^ two
lateral saws working in alternation. When fully inserte(| the instru-
ment is pried upward by a motion of the alxlomcn, raisiiiLT and loosen-
ing in this way little fibers of wood which, renjainiiiL: attached, form
a sort of covering for the egg fissure or nest. The c iiliiiiL: noiinally
extends nearly to the j)ith or about one-twelfth of an inch in depth,
and is continued until space is made to receive from ten to twenty
eggs. After preparing the egg nest as described, the fennde moves
back to the point of commencement and again tiunists in hei- ovi])osi-
tor, using the two side pieces as grooves or channels to convey the
eggs into the twigs, where they are placed in pairs, separated l)y a
central tongue of woody fiber, w Inch has been left undisturbed, and
which is wider at the bottom than at the top. Two eggs having been

Fig. 44.— Egg nest of the periodical Cicada: a, recent i)unctnre, front
view; h, same, surface removed to show arrangement of eggs, from
above; r, same, side \ie\v; d, egg cavity exposed after eggs arc
removed, and showing the sculpture left by the ovipositor. All
enlarged (after Rilcj').

110 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

inserted in the portion of the fissure first made, the ovipositor is
withdrawn and again inserted, and two more eg<rs are phiced in line
witli the first; this operation bein<( continued until the egg nest is
filled. A step or two forward is then taken, and after a brief pause
a new egg nest is begun. About fifteen minutes is occupied in pre-
paring and fdling one of these nests with eggs.

The above account is substantially correct so far as the supei-ficial
appearances are concerned. Instead, however, of first making an egg
nest and afterwards filling it with eggs in pairs, as described, the female
deposits the row of eggs on one side as she makes the original cutting
in the bark. She then moves back, and, swinging a little to one side,
inserts through the same hole the second row of eggs parallel with the
first, thus leaving a small bit of undisturbed wood fiber between the
two rows of eggs. Tliis method of inserting the eggs corresponds to
that known to be true of allied insects which deposit their eggs in prac-
tically the same manner, and is confirmed also by the careful observa-
tions made b}^ Mr. Ira H. Lawton, of Xyack, X. Y., in 1S94, and
reported by Professor Lintner." ^Ir. Lawton found that the placing
of each row of eggs occupied a little over twenty minutes, or, for the
construction and filling of the double egg nest, some forty-five minutes.
During the cutting of the fissure the ovipositor made about eighty
strokes per minute, and after four chambers were made the female
would indulge in a short rest.

The number of nests made in a single twig varies from four or -Rve to
fifteen or twenty, the latter number being not at all unusual, and as
many as fifty egg nests in a line, each containing fourteen to twenty
eggs, have been found in a single limb. The punctures are often
made so close to each other that they sometimes run together, so as to
form a continuous slit for 2 or 3 inches.

The Cicada passes from one limb or from one tree to another until
she has exhausted her store of eggs, which have been estimated to
number from four to six hundrecL ^J the time the egg-laying is com-
pleted the female becomes so weak from her incessant labor that she
falls to the ground and perishes or soon becomes a ^dctiin to her various
natural enemies.

THE GROWTH AND HATCHING OF THE EGGS.

The eggs remain in tlie twigs for six or seven weeks after bemg
deposited. Professor Potter was one of the first to determine this
rather unusually long egg period b}^ marking certain egg clusters and
watching them until the 3^oung larvse were disclosed. He reports that
from eggs deposited on the 5th of June he witnessed the hatching of
the young on the 28th of Jul}'. This statement is also corroborated by

a Twelfth Report Insects New York, p. 275.

<ii;<l\VTII AND llATCIIINd OK KIKI

111

Doctor Smith. Miss Morris jiiid otluM-s i-ccoid a sliortcM- ix-riod. niul
then* is uiul()ui)t(MlIy coiisidcrahh* \ mint ion (hie to w cat licr coiKlil ions,
but th(> normal period, as show n hy the abundant I'cM-oi-ds of t hi-- ndicc,
and many observers, since those noted, i-an^es, as .slated, IVoiu >i\ to
seven \\'(M'ks. vSome interest im: instances h axe been noted of retarded
(h'Vidopment of (\l:i:s in phmls yicKhni: LTUininy exuihil ions which had
hernH^ticahy ch)S(>d lh(> nc^sts from the outer aii'. Proh'»or lvile\'
not(\s a case of this kind w hci'e the ei:;.!^"^ I'cmamcd sound and un-
hatched until t h(> (Mid of tlu* y(>ai', lon^ after the I re(\s had shed their
foliaixe. K.\c(>|)t in the extnMiu* south, \\hei-e all of the periods ai'c
som(>\vhat earlier, th(> (\L:_ir^^ Jire d(*l)osite(l chielly in the month of dune
and most abundantly about tlu^ nnddl(> of this month, and the hatcli-
iii^ period ranges from the middle of duly to the lii-st of Auirust.

The e<rii: is a v(»rv dedicate*, ])early-\\hite object , about one-t w elft h of
an inch lonix, taperini:: to an obtuse j)oint at (dther (>nd and slirrhtly
curved. The sludl is v(>rv thin and trans])ar(uit, the form of the lai'val
insect showing through some time ])efore hatching. As is th(> case
with most insects that oviposit hi the living parts of phmts, the eggs
of the Cicaehi receive a certain nourishment from the plant and
actually increase in size before hat clung,
by absorption of the juices from the
adjacent plant cells. ^^iZf jm iJ IuJju 1^

Discussing the devel()])ment of the .,,^ .- ~~^7~1 r.■,..A■r,.^^■...A. ,^„„>,

f^ i i'iG.4o. — hgg of periodical Cicada, much

embryo, Doctor Potter says that on the enlarged, siiowing young ai)out to he
fifteenth dav a chamre in color in the c^r^r ^''-^"-i- (-^"^^ors illustration.,
may be notcMl, and from this time on there is a gradual increase in
size, the embryo slowly assuming form — tlie eye becoming esp(>cially
prominent some ten days Ijefore hatcdiing (fig. 45).

The larval Cicada makes its esca])(* i)y rupturing the eggsludl over
the back, from the up])er end downward about halfway, l)y muscular
movements, accompanied with an inflation of the head and forward
parts of the body. The rupture in the shell once* made, th(» larva
works its wa}' out l)y twistings and contortions until the tip n\' its
body only remains in the egg slit of the shell. The entire insect . how-
ever, is still iiudosed in an extremely dedicate and almost in\i>ihle
membrane famnion i. and after i-esting a short time the \iolent mo\-e-
ments are airain resumed, and b^' wri<r<!:lin<::, twisting, and inllatingits
head, thorax, and anterior ])arts the thin envcdoping skin is burst open,
and by gradual e (forts, coupled with cont ract ions and expansions of the
body, the larva draw > it-elf out . leaving the t hin white skin held in t he
tip of the egirsh(>ll. The lai\a' nearest the opening come out lir>t,
the otliers following in reg'ilar order, each usually pushing out the
abandoned eggshell of the preceding one, though commonly several
eggsh'dls remain attached to the loose woody libers of the egg nest.

112 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Almost at the moment that it becomes free, the larva begins to
run actively alxmt with the quick motions of an ant, l)ut soon goes
to the side of the limb, loosens its hold, and deliberately falls to the
ground, its specific graAaty being so slight that it passes through the
air as gently as a feather and receives no injurs'. The peculiar
instinct which impels tliis newly hatched larva to thus precipitate
itself into space without the least knowledge of the distance to the
ground or the result of its venture has been often commented upon,
but is not more remarkable than other features in the life liistoiy of
tliis species.

On coming to the earth the larva immediately penetrates it, usually
entering at a crack or fissure, or at the base of some herbaceous plant,
and begins the long period of its subterranean life.

The newly hatched larva (fig. 46) is about one-sixteenth of an inch
long and differs considerably in general form from the later larval
stages, while at the same time presenting the general structural char-
acteristics showm in the latter. It has, for example, a much longer

and distinctly eiglit-jointed antenna,
and the head is longer in proportion
to the bod}^. It is 3^ellowish white in
general color, except the eyes and the
claws of the anterior legs, which are
Fig. 46.— Newly hatched lan^a, greatly reddish. It is sparselv covered ^^dth
enlarged. (Alter RUey.) miuute hairs. In f omi^ it is quitc elon-

gate and subcylindrical, and it is particularly notable for its very
prominent front legs.

THE UNDERGROUND LIFE OF THE CICADA.

EXPERIMEXTAL PROOFS OF THE LOXG UNDERGROUND LIFE.

The life and habits of the periodical Cicada above ground, wliicli
have so far only been discussed, are open to easy study and have been
fairly well understood, certainly since the time of Hildreth, Potter, and
Smith; but from the time of the disappearance of the young larva be-
neath the soil and thereafter, throughout its long h;\^ogeal existence,
observations are difficult and vdi\\ the earlier observers were limited to
the occasional or accidental uneartliingof specimens, and no consecutive
series of observations of a defuiite brood or generation was attempted.
The proof for the 17-year or 13-year period for the development of
the Cicada was, therefore, based solely on chronological records, but
so noteworthy were the recurrences of the important broods and so
fidl and complete were the records, some broods ha^ang been regularly
recorded on the occasion of each visit for nearly two hundred ^^ears,
that there was no possibility of doubting the accuracy of the time
periods from such records alone; nevertheless, this unusual feature in

PROOFS OF L(>Na T^NI)KK(;HorNn 1,1 KK. 113

the life of tlic Cicada always arouscvs skcplici^m in t he iiiiiicU (.f ixM-mis
who have not t^ivcn th(^ niatt(M- study and liaNc uol cxainiiKMl ihc
historical records. To >il(Micc such ohjcctors, latlici- than liccjiu-c of
the need of experiiiHMital ])roof, Profess«)r Ivilcx was for nian\ xcais
interested in d(Mnonstr'a(iui: \)\ actual I'cai'iiiLr cxpciinicuts the period
of underiri'ouud (h^Nc^lopnuMit of this ins(>ct ; in other \\(>i-(fs. to follow
a ])articular t2:enera(ion through its suhteri-ancaii hfe of sexcnteeii or
thirteen years, as tlie case niis^ht 1)(\ watchini^ it> dc\-e]o|)iiienl and
preserviui!: cxanipk^s {)( the dill'er(Mit sta<i;es.

The great difliculty o( conductin*; to a successful terniinat ion experi-
ments of this sort will he a})preciated when the louir period oxer w hich
the experiments must necessarily extend is reniemhei-ed. The ext reine
dehcacy and softness of the larva? tlieniselves, especially in the lir-t
years of their existence, introduces an additional difliculty, as the
slightest touch or j)ressure injures or crushes tluun and rendcis thcin
unrecognizahle. It is therefore often difhcult to find them. c\(mi when
th(* soil is v(My thickly tenanted.

The diflicult}- of carrying out hrecding ex|)erinients with the Cicada
under any hut natural conditions is illustrated ])y various efforts in t his
direction undertaken hy this Bureau. In one instance a niunher of
newly hatched Cicada larvse were allow^ed to penetrate the soil about a
j^otted oak tree of small size. Xone of these larvae survived for a
single year. In another instance the hirvae were allowed to penetrate
the soil in large breeding tanks, each containing young trees, the tanks
being })lanted out of doors in the soil. These were left iuidistur1)ed for
a number of years, and although the conditions were seemingly very
favorable for a successful outcome, when an examination was Ihially
made, no traces of the larv» were found.

The earliest systematic attempts to follow tlie (lcvel()|)nicnl of the
Cicada were mack' in the field in Missouri ])\' Professor Ivilcy. and
subseciuently continued under the hitter's direction ])y ^Ir. J. Ci. Bar-
low, an agent of the Bui'cau. They consisted i]i making diggings
from year to year under trees which were known to ha\"c been thickly
stocked with eggs. The first records aj)pr()aching hi any wav to
comj)leteness were obtained with the l.J-year J>rood XIX, beginning
with its appearance in issl. ()l)ser\ at ions on thi> hrood w(>r(> con-
tinued by Mr. Barlow at Cadet, Mo., with a fair degree of rcgulaiity
until July, 1891, when they imfortunately t(M-inimit(Ml.

During the ten years over which these ohsei-\ at ions (>xt ended the
msect had developed through all four larval stages and was ready to
enter the first pupal stage. The first molt occurred after a period of
from one year to eighteen months, the second molt after an addi-
tional period of two years, the third molt after an additional j)eriod
of three years, and the fourth molt after an additiojial ])eriod of
31117— No. 71—07 8

114 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

three or four years, leaviii«z: in this i:5-year brood three or four years
more for the j)U])al stages.

A much more careful series of experiments was instituted in con-
nection with the 17-year Brood X, beginning witli its last appearance
in 1885. At the time tliat the eggs of the 13-3'ear Brood XXlll were
being distributed to various points in the North, in order to determine
the effect of the temperature and climate (see pp. 18-20), quantities
of egg-laden twigs of the 17-year brood noted, collected in Virginia,
were distributed under certain linden and oak trees on the grounds
of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C. Larv?p
came from these twigs in some numbers and went into the soil under
the trees, but not in such abundance as could have been wished for
the successful outcome of the experiment. This brood was followed
in its underground life from 1885 to 1896, at which time the speci-
mens had become so rare that extensive digging resulted in the dis-
covery of A^ery fev\' individuals, and further search was abandoned.
With this ])rood the first molt occurred after one year, the second
molt two years later, the third molt three or four years later, and the
fourth molt after an additional three or four years, thus occupymg
upward of ten 3"ears with the four larval changes and bringing the
insect into the last larval stage with some six or seven 3'ears for the
subsequent larval and pupal life. If any adults emerged at the end
of the 17-year period in 1902 they were not observed.

A SUCCESSFUL SEVENTEEN-YEAR BREEDING RECORD. °

A much more promising experiment, because of more abun(U\nt
material, was instituted on the Department grounds in 1889 with the
17-year race which appeared in that yeaT and which had its return
appearance during May and June of last summer (1906). This brood
is practical^ unrepresented m the District of Columbia, and did not
occur at all on the Department grounds. A ver}' large quantity of
egg-infested twigs was obtained from North Carolina, Long Island,
Kentuck}^, and Ohio, several cartloads altogether, and were distrib-
uted under oak and other trees on the grounds of tlie Department of
Agriculture. The eggs in most instances were hatchmg wlien received
and were placed under the trees in the ver}'^ best condition for the
larva? to enter the soil, and many thousands, probably hundreds of
thousands, of larvae actually went into the soil under these trees. This
experiment was made during the first year of the writer's connection
with the Bureau of Entomology, and the later examinations were
made cliiefly under his direction. Three years after the planting the
soil uiuU^r the trees where the egg-bearing twigs had been distributed

« The records of the plantings on the Department grounds of the eggs of Brood X
in 1885 and Brood XIV in 1889 are given in Appendix B, of Bui. 14.

A SUCCKSSKrL SKVKNTKKN-YKAK HHKKI)IX(; l{K(«Hn». I IT)

was foimd to !)(> tliicklv lillcd willi l:ii\a\ so iimcli x. tli;ii ;i vinM-],.
sj)a(l('riil «)!' ca.rlh would often turn up half a do/cii or ni<iic. In tli<'
s|)rill_i:: of lSi)7 \\\o lai"\a- had i-cachcd the foui'th >taL:'c and wnr ^lllj
i very abundant in the soil. lOxannnat ions wci-e made fi<»ni linic Id
tiiiio show inir thcNC lai'\a' to \)o still pi-cscni in t he >(»il ahoul i he t ices
wluM'c the (\iri!;s had Ixhmi dist rihutcd, u-oini;- ihi'on^h the >l(i\\ piocctss
of LTi'owth and transfoi-niat ion which ha> Ix-cn dc^crihcd cKcw here.
That a suc('(^ssful outcome was sure to he had in (hi-- experinieiil was
denionstratcMl in the (»arly sprini:: *>!' l-HH), the yeai- foi- the appearance
of this hrood. tlu> u'round ahout the plant(Ml t I'ce^ exhihitiiiLT many of
the exit iiolcs ol" the insects which -avc nnid(> to the surfac-e Ioiilt hef<'re
the ins(H't emerges. These holes under ceiiain trees were so nmnerons
as to indicate th(MMneri::enee of thousands of cicadas. I'lider one t I'ee
a count and estimate were made of more than five thou>and openin^N,
and under other trees the openmgs ranged from a lew hundred to from
on(^ to thriM^ thousand. The actual emergence took place heiween
May 14 and '21. The writer visited the grove on two exonini:.^ and
witnessed the issuance of numbers of cicadas and collected some
specimens. In s])ite, however, of the considerable number of cicadas
which actually emerged, none was seen on the trees during the days
and weeks following emergence. Each moi'ning about the phmted
trees would lie found a consideral)le group of blackbirds ((^uiscdlus
quiscula), which e\idently had be(Mi feasting on tlu^ newly-issued
cicadas. The cast pupal shells were numerous on the truid^s of the
trees and especially on the foliage, and also on the ground, l)ut scarcely
a single Cicada escaped the sharj^ eyes of these l)irds, and the charac-
teristic sonsr.was not heai'd durini:,' dune in this grove, althoui:h thou-
>an(ls of adults had come forth.

At nonc^ of the.examinations wei-(> Cicadas found of t his hi-ood under
anv of the trees exce|)t when* eggs had been distributed, and no
emergence holes appeared under other trees. 'Jdie recoi'd from th(>
|)lanting to the emergence of this insect is therefore complete, and
gives the demonstration by actual transfer and br<'eding record of the
long j^eriod (jf the 17-year brood, a dcMuonstration which, as in(licate(l
at the outset, was entirely unnecessary to show the correctness of this
extraordinary hypogeal term.

The absolute failure of these insects to establish themsel\-es when
planted in such enormous numbers, and (»ven when the underground
j)eriod had been successfully passed, owing to the relent le>> on-laught
of birds, is a striking illustration of what is happening every year
with the different broods in nature, especially in thinly forested
regions, and accounts for their great reduction in number- and tlu^
j)ractical disappearance of many local swarms foinieily abundant.
It also shows that there may be emergences in considerable naml>ers

116 THE PERTODTCAL ( UADA.

without thoir being reported, unless some oVjserver chances on a pupal
shell or notes the exit holes in the ground about the trees; hence
the slight value of a negative report as opposed to a positive one.

HISTORY OF THE LARVAL AND PUPAL STAGES.

A careful study of the material collected in the course of the experi-
ments described in the last section demonstrates the interesting fact
that this species, in spite of its very long period of growth, presents
the same number of adolescent stages as is found in insects which go
tlu'ough their entire development within a single year or even of the
more rapidly multiplexing species, wliich have many annual genera-
tions. But six distinct stages are found, four of which belong to the
larval condition and two to the pupal. In other words, the larval
and pupal changes in the periodical Cicada are normal and are not
increased by its long preparatory existence.

It has been inferred hitherto, and notably by Professor Riley, that
owing to the continual use of the claws in burrowing, this species found
it necessary to shed its skin and undergo a molting once or twice a
3^ear, and instead of the normal number of changes or molts there
were probably from twenty-five to thirty. An examination of types
of the different larval stages which Professor Riley had provisionally
separated demonstrates that the differences on which these supposed
stages were based are either individual and exceptional or due to the
difference of age within the same stage, and that as far as structure
and size of the hard parts of the larva and pupa are concerned the
normal number of stages only is represented in this species.

For the separation of these different stages, of growth useful char-
acters are found in the size and structure of the legs, and especially of
the anterior pair, in the antennae, and in the development of the wing
sheaths. It is the rule with insects that wdth each molt there is a
decided increase in the size of the head and hard parts generally, and
with the periodical Cicada especially it is also very doubtful if there
is ever a molt without a decided change of the sort indicated. Its life
beneath the ground in its moist cell over a rootlet is a vers^ quiet one and
free from an}^ of the wearing action of rain -or the drying of the outer
air, so that the need of a molting or change of skin would apparently be
much less than that in an exposed or much more active insect. It prob-
ably also very rarely has occasion to burrow^ to an}^ considerable extent
and probably often remains for ^^ears in the sanie,£ell, which it enlarges
from time to time without change of location. For these reasons the
^^Titer is inclined to believe that mol tings onl}^ occur when change of
form becomes necessary b}^ the increased size of the insect, and this
seems to be borne out by definite structural peculiarities, wliich easih"
permit us to recognize the different stages or determine the age of any
larva within a year or two. The larva of a particular molt or stage

msroKV OK THK LARVAL AND ITPAL srA(;j:s. 117

of ii:r()wtli will \ary coiisidcM-ahly in sizc^ of the body and I lie softer
parts, represent inix perhaps a dilVercnce in n^^c in some cases of one
or two years, but the hard parts will prescMit a very nnifoi-ni si/.c and
eharacter.

The j)eeuliar structure of tlu^ (Mdari2:(Ml antei'ior le^^s furnisho p( i-
liaps the best means of distinLrnishinii: the adolesc(>nt sta^^cs of this
sp(H'i{»s from other cicadas and the modilication which t hoc limhs
undergo with the ditferent molts the ])est nuMins of del (Mini nin<i; the
aj2:e of the larva\ The peculiarities of tlu^ anterior Ic^s consist in the
enormous (MdarirtMnent of the femora and tihia> and tluMi- (lc\(>lopmcnt
into structures wliich resemble somewhat the cuttini:; mandibles of
]>itin<r ins(H'ts or r(>call tlu^ fossorial foivleijjs of ihv mole cricket. The
peculiar structure of tluvse l(»srs is in fact especially desin-ned foi- (Tilc-
^in^, teariui^:, and transj^ort iuii; (\irtli in tlie course of tlu* itisect's sub-
terranean life. As alr(\uly indicated, the amount of burrowini^ in
th(^ eaily stages is not necessarily very great in any one y^'ar, but dur-
ing the entire seventeen years conditions may occasionally arise which
will demand a considin'able activity on the part of the young Cicada.

Tlu> d(>tails of the structure of tlie front legs, wdiich are given in the
technical description of this species, are quite characteristic and
diverge notably from the similar parts of other species. The anterior
tarsus of the periodical Cicada exhibits also a rather ]^(Muliar meta-
morphosis during the adolescent life of the species. In other words,
during the first larval stage and in the pupal stage it is similar to the
other tarsi but considerably longer, being attached to the iimer side
of the greatly enlarged tibia and at a considerable distance from the
clawlike ti]:> of the latter. The fore tarsi are of service to the young
larva in \\alking and climbing and in the same way to the ))upa after
its emergence from the soil, facilitating its climbing trees or other
ol)jects; in other words, covering the periods between the hatching
and entering the soil and betw^een the emergence of the ])upa and l1i(^
disclosure of the imago. During its long subterranean life, however,
these long, .slender tarsi, being distinctly in the way in digging in the
earth and of no .service, become rudimentary with the first moll and
nearly disa])]>ear in the subsecpient larval stage. They reapjx^ar in
th<' iir>t })Ui)al stag<\ but in this and the sul)se(|uent puj)al stage,
while the insect is still below the soil, they are folded back along the
tibiir, so as to be practically functionless (se(» (ig. 51), and are only
unfolded and brought into service after the pupa has emerged from
the ground.

Tlie more detailed description of the different stages which follows
will facilitate^ the easy recognition of any particular stage. The chief
points to be considered in determining both the age of the larva and
whether or not it belongs to the j^eriodical s]>ecies are the measure-
ments of the corre.sj)onding parts of the legs and antemue, but i)ar-

118

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

ticularly the variation in the structure of the pecuUar comb-Uke
organ which is found on the apical margin of the front femora, together
with the important differences in the hairy covering of the body and
legs.

TECHXICAL DESCRIPTIOX OF THE DIFFEREXT STAGES.

F'hst larval stage. — The newly hatched larva (fig. 47, a) is about 1.8
mm. long from tip of head to the extremity of the abdomen, is rather
slender and of a nearly uniform thickness throughout, presenting,
however, the general characteristics of the later larval stages. The

body is clothed ^^dth numerous
scattering long hairs. The gen-
eral color is cream}' wliite, with
prominent, deep red, almost black,
eye spots. The antennae, beak,
and legs are, relativeh^ with other
stages, very large in comparison
\\ith the size of the body. The
anterior legs are developed in
general as in the later stages,
though lacking the femoral
comb-like organ wliich begins in
the second stage and the minute
second subapical tooth on the tibia
which appears in the fourth stage.
The anterior tibias are also
more slender and the mandible-
like tip is more sharply pomted.
The row of stiff hairs for retain-
ing the earth excavated in bur-
romng, so prominent in the
later stages, is but sparsely rep-
resented. The anterior tarsus
is inserted considerably within
the tip of the tibia, projecting beyond the latter, and is armed
at its extremity with two nearly ec[ual, curved claws, similar to
those on the middle and hind tarsi. The basal joint of the two-
jointed tarsi ill all the feet is very minute and with difliculty detected,
and in fact becomes still more inconspicuous in later larval develo]>
ment. The antennae are seven-jointed, as in all the subsec^uent larval
and i)upal stages (one of the characters distinguishing tliis species
from other allied species, particularly C. tlhicen, which has an addi-
tional joint); but the presence of a very prominent antenna! tubercle
gives an appearance of eight joints, the number which I have liitherto
assigned to it. The fu'st true joint is robust and a little shorter than

Fig. 47.— First larval stage: a, newlj' hatched
larva; h, antenna of same; c, larva eighteen
months old; d, enlarged anterior leg of same.
(Author's illustration.)

TKCHNICAL DKSCRIl'TInX (»F SI'ACJKS.

W)

the second, tlu^ two follow iiiii; ai'c .^iilxMnial and -l>oitcr iliaii ilic lir^i,
tlie fiftli is slH)i't(M- tliaii llic I'oiiilli, and tlic >i\tli and ^cnciiiIi aic
siil)(>(Hial and ^^liortci- than tli(> lil'tli. tli(> la>l t a|)(Miii;j; rcLCulai-U iVoin
{he :\\)c\, which is armed wit h ciii'ncmI s|)in('>, one hin^- and oncvhoit.
The t(M-iniiial thr(>(> joints I'oi'in >oin(M hini:,- of a chih li|). Dniin^-this
stairt' the hir\a increases in h'n^Mh to more than ."I mm. and 1 he ah(h)-
men swc^Hs and l)ecomes moi'c rohust . Theh'n^th of the hai'd chiti-
iioiis parts i'(Mnain. howt>\(M\ unchanu'cd, a> foUow-^: Anteiioi' femora,
0.27 mm.; anterior tihia\ O.oO mm.: hind til)ia\ i).:\:\ nmi.

Tliis slaij:(^ hists mort* than n yaw, the lirsl moh nsiiahy occiii-imiil!;
durin^ij: tlio scm-oiuI year after liatclunij:. (S(m» (i^-. 17.)

Second larval sUige. — 'I'he a\-ei-aii(> hMiL!,th of the hii'xa in this staice is
about 4 mm. Tlie more liorny j^arts now nunisure: .Vnterior femora,
0.50 mm.; antcM'ior tibia\ 0.55 min.; hiiul lihia^, O.so mm. The
i!:eneral ai)j)earance is uncliaiiii'ed from the hiter (h'\-eh)|)men1 in the
])ro('edinii: sta<2:o. llie eye-spots are still pres(Mit, th()ii<j:h r(>duce(l.
The under surface of the liead is armed with some ratlier h)n^ hairs,
and a v(M"v reo:ular row of miinite sj>in(»s occurs on the ant<'rior face
of the hind and the middle femora.
The ]-)rominent apical til)ial s])ur of

tlie michlle and llie .hind ])air a])- / r-J '' , f / /^
pears with tliis .molt, being previ-
ously represented, if at all, by a sim-
])le >pin(\ The third joint of the

now distinctly elbowed antenmr is I'ig. 48.-Sccond larval stage: a, anterior log,

as long as the second, and the thre

outer face; h, same, inner face. (Author's
illustration.)

terminal joints are rather more com-
pressed into a club-like tip than in the fu-st stage. The chief charac-
teristics of this second stage, how^ever, are in the anterior legs ((ig.
48). The femora now possess a rudimentary comb of three teeth, the
U])])er tooth being v(M'y broad and projecting beyond tlie two .suc-
ceeding sharj) ones, of which the lower is the larger. The central
tooth of the f<'mora, which was rather minute, or, moic properly, a
mere spine in tli(> first stage, is now^ very nuich larger and bioadened
at the ])ase into a prominent triangular ])r()jection. Th.e tai-n^ is
reduced to a horny rudiment about three times as long as w ide. and
is clos(4y applied to the inner surface of the tibial 'jaw"' which
extends twice llie length of th(> tarsus heyond the latter.

This stage, a> already stated, is assumed during lli;> hist two or
three month> of the .second year of the ins(>ct's existence and lasts
nearly two years.

Third larral stage. — Length, r» to S mm. ; anterioi- feinoi'a. 1 .20 mm. ;
anterior tibia*, l.'^5 mm.; hind tibia". 1.^5 nun. My.- -spol^ -.{]]] more
reduced; numerou.s j)aiall{ 1 row.s of ,>horl hairs on the head are notice-

120

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

able; hairy armature of legs more distinctly outlined; a row of small
spines on either side of middle and hind tibiae, while the rows of bristles
on tlie inner margins of the anterior femora and tibite for holding the
excavated earth are well developed. xVnterior tarsus reduced to a mere
tapering spur about two and one-half times as long as wide at base.
Tlie femoral comb has one additional tooth, making four in all, count-
ing the blunt upper
one (fig. 49) . The an-
tenna! joints decrease
in length from the
basal to the terminal,
the basal two and the
terminal two being.

Fig. 49. — Third lan-al stage: a, anterior leg, outer lace; b, same, ho WC Ver of
inner face. (Author's illustration.) , , ' ^

equal length,

nearly
respec-
Sexual

tivety. The wing cases are foreshadowed by minute pads
differences very faintly discernible.

The larva is in this stage at the completion of the fourth year of its
existence.

Fourth larval stage. — Length, 10 to 15 mm.; anterior femora, 2.40
mm.; anterior tibiae, 2.70
mm.; hind tibiae, 4 mm.
Eye-spots reduced to
from three to six minute
black points, rows of
hairs on head easily dis-
cernible and prominent;
spines on femora and
tibiae of all legs, and par-
ticularty the anterior
pair, more numerous and
longer and stouter than
in the preceding stages.
The anterior tibia has a
small tooth withm the
larger blunt subapical
one. The femoral comb
has again an additional
tooth, making five in all.
^Vntenna^ as in the preced-
ing stage. Rudimentary wing cases somewhat more prominent than
in the last stage, but still inconspicuous. (See fig. 50.)

The larva is in this stage at the com])letion of the eighth year of its
existence, and the stage probably lasts three or four years.

Fig. .50.— Fourth lan-al stage: a, full grown lars'a. much en-
larged; b, outline of femoral comb: c, anterior leg, outer face;
(Autlior's illustration.)

d, same, inner face.

TECHNICAL I)KSClill'-|'Ili\ 111'' STAflES.

121

First pupal fiUige. — L(Mi*xtli in the cai-ly condil ion of tliis stairc ahout
17 mm.; antorioi* fcMiiora, o.oO mm.; anlcM-ior lihia', '.\.i\() nun.: liind
tibiiv, 5. SO mm.; width of luMid, (i nun. Kv('-s])ots cntii-clx \\anliii«:;
eyo proniincMUHvs w(dl d(>\ (^lopcd. as in lat(M- jxipal slairf's. WiiiLT <'iises
oxt(Mul to tlie ti]") of tlu' tliird s(\«^iU(Mit. Tliird antcmial joint one-
third lonii:i>r than siH'ond, fourtli as lon<j; as second, othci's dcci'casinLi;
in h'nirtli. The- anterior tai'si r(>a|)|)ear |)(M-lVct ly dcNcloix'd, and aic
nearly as lonii: as th(^ til)ia\ and arc* foKled ah)n^ the iimei- face of the
hittc^r; the iirst joint is \(My niiniit(\ and the second or hist \'eiy lon*^ —
lonirer than the nii(hll(> or postcM'ior j)airs — a!i(l armed with two cnr\-ed
claws at tlie t ip. of wliicli one is rath(M' lon«i;er than the other. 1^'emoral
cond) with an athhtional tooth, a very minute on(> heini,^ distinctly
separated from the large bhmt
npper tooth. The anterior
tihia* liave w ithm the large
blunt subapical tooth, whicli
has occurred all along hitluulo,
two minute saw-teeth instead
of the on(* present in the pre-
ceding stage (fig. 51). The
hairs of the legs and body are
arranged as hitherto, Init are
rather more numerous and
longer, and this is particularly
true of the anterior limbs.
The sexual characters which
have been foreshadowed in the
two later larval stages are now
distinctly defined.

Second pupal stage. — This

stage does not present any fig. ol.— First pupal stage: a, anteriorlpfjjnnprfaop.
difi'erences from the last except ^'^oW.ng tarsus ho^t back against tl.o tibia, b,

i^ same, outjT face. (Autlior s illustration.)

in the greater size of the speci-
mens, which is noticeable in the relative dimensions of th(> ]^nrts
hitherto measured for eom})arison. The length of the adult pu|)a
varies from 27 mm. in th(> case of the males to about 35 mm. in the
case of the larger females. The adult ])upa of the male ])resents the
following length of tlie ]^arts refeifed to: Anterior f(>mora, M.SO mm.;
anterior tibia^, 4.;)() mm.: hind tibia-, (1.70 mm.: width of liead, ().7()
mm. In the ca-e of the female: Anter'ior fcMiiora, A.'IO mm.: antei'ior
ti])ia', ~) mm.; hind tihia', 7..")() mm.: widtli of head, 7.7)0 mm. Tlie
anterior tarsus in all uiu-arlhed sj)eeim(Mis is folded closely back
against the face of iIk tibia, bill in all aerial specimens is unfolded
and j)rojeci> forwaid to l)e of serxicc in climbing.

122 THE PKRTODTrAL CTCADA.

THE HABITS OF THE LARVA AND PUPA.

During its lung life beneath the suil, in its small moist oval cell,
which at first is not larger than a '^ birdshot," but is gradually enlarged
to accommodate the slowly-increasing size of the inmate, little oppor-
timity is afforded for much variation in mode of existence and habits.
The interesting features to be considered are the feeding and burrow-
ing habits, which together comprise the ]:)rinci]ial activities of its sub-
terranean existence.

TTFE FOOD OF THE I.ARVA AXD PUPA.

The food taken l)y this insect beneath the soil is necessarily fluid, as
is also the case with the perfect insect, as well as with all other insects
of the order Hemiptera. That the Cicada should obtain its nourish-
ment in a manner different from the other members of its order woidd
not be anticipated, but, nevertheless, a good deal of difference of
opinion has been expressed as to the nature of the food of this insect
in its subterranean life, as also its method of feeding. Both Professor
Potter and Doctor Smith were of the opinion that the insect in its
underground life obtained its nourishment from the surface moisture
of the roots of plants through capillar}^ hairs at the tip of the pro-
boscis— a curious misapprehension, as the hairs mentioned arise fi"om
the sheaths, and have no connection with the true piercing and sucking
setse. Professor Potter expresses himself on this subject as follows:

In all places they are found attached to the tender fibrils of plants, AMien they
are disturbed or driven from them they seek for others the moment they are at liberty.
This is their only aliment, not the substance of the roots of the plants, which they can
not divide and comminute without teeth or jaws to use them, but the mere aerial
exhalation from their surface. This well-established fact would seem to account for
the slowness of their growth, and furnishes a reason for so long a subterraneous residence.

This absurd view of the method of nourishment of the larva and
pupa is on a par also ^^dth the belief of the same authors, reviving the
statement of Aristotle, that the adult insect subsists on "the devry
exlialation of vegetable barks," which was supposed to be swept uj) hy
a brush of hairs on the tip of the proboscis. Doctor Smith claims a
basis for this theory of the feeding habits in personal observation, and
it has been supposed b}" others to be supported by the well-known
fact that the Cicada will occasionally issue from the ground that has
been practically cleared of timl)er and under cultivation for a numl)er
of years, and that other species are known to issue horn the prairies.
These facts lose much of their significance when it is remembered that
iiny vegetation, even amiual, as of farm crops, woidd supj^ly ani])le
root growth for the Cicachi larva during the growing ])erio(l of summer,
and in the colder months they imdoubtedly lie dormant in their earthen
cells.

THK FOOD OF TIIF L.\K\A A X 1 > IM I'A. ]2'A

P(»r]ia])s tlio first writci- to point out and (Icinon.^l i-.-ilc tlir tiiic
nu'tliod of fcHMliiii:- of tli(» l:ii'\a and pupa of this inxMi in tlicii- iindcr-
grouiul ('.\ist('n('(' was Miss Moi-ris, of (l(>nnanlo\\ ii. Pa. Thai I he
Cicada hirva* and pupa^ j)i(M*('(^ small roots with their suckin^^ hcaks
and 1V(h1 on the juices of the plant, as do other |)lant-feedinLr heinip-
tcM'ous insects, as th(M"r normal, if not theii- sole iiuMhod of sul)^i^lin^•
was fidly proved hy her invcvstiiiat ion, and has Ixmmi confirmed i-epeat-
edly in the diir^inus nnide ])y the writer, and thei-e can no lon^-ei- he
any possihility of donht in th(» matter. In |)i-act ically e\-ei-y case, in
th(* writ(M'*s e\p{M"i(Mic(\ wherc^ tlu* cell in \\hich the larva iwsted \\as
taken out in condition for examination a small root, oiu^-sixteenth to
thr(>(>-si.\t(MMiths inch in diam(4er, was found to bordiM- iisualK the
upper end of the cell, and in several instances larviu were found with
their Ixniks so securely embedded in the root that they were not easily
loos(Mied. In other instances the roots showed, by the sliii,ht swell-
inu' an(l reddisli discoloration beneath the ])ark, nnmistakable sions of
havini:: ])een jninctured.

The root-fe(Hling- habit can be best witnessed in Hght, rich soils, and
m the plantings of the brood of 1889 nnder oak trees on the Depart-
ment grounds the soil beneath these trees was so thickly inhabited
that between the depths of 6 and 12 inches every spadeful of (*arth
would throw out numbers of the larvie, and a most excellent opportu-
nity was afforded for the study of their habits. In hard, packed
soils, perhaps scantily supplied wdth roots, the difhculty of getting out
the cells in perfect condition is such that one might easil}^ be led into
error, and the comparative rarity of the larvae in such soils adds fur-
ther to the difficulty of determining their feeding habits.

It is for this reason, I have no doubt, that the opinion has ()l)tained
in some ([uarters that the larvae subsist not on the roots of plants, but
on the nourishment obtained from the surface moisture of the roots,
or the general moisture of the earth, which might be sujiposed to
contain more or less nutrient material arising from the decomposition
of the vegetable matter. That the moisture of the surrounding soil
ma}', and doubtless does, supply the very delicate, thin-skinned larvae
and pupae with a certain amount of liquid by absorption through the
skin may be admitted, and in fact when the larvae are taken from
their natural surroundings and exposed to the air they" very rapidly
dry and shrivel. Larva^ are doubtless occasionally found in cells
away from roots, and this may be explained by the fact of their being
at that time either undergoing one, of their long resting or hibernating
periods, which may be of fre(juent occurnMun^ in such an extremely
long-lived species, or they may be l)uiro\\ing in search of roots on
which to subsist.

124 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

THE LOCATIOX IX THE SOIL.

There has ])een great diflerence of opmion as to the depth beneath
the soil reached by the larvse and pupae. In all of the extensive
excavations which have been made on the Department grounds in
following the results of the experimental plantings, specimens have
rarely beenfound at a greater depth than 2 feet below the surface and
usually between 6 and 12 inches, especially in the first years of the life
of the insect. This experience is corroborated by the examinations
made by Professor Riley in ^lissouri, and is fully confirmed by the
interesting manuscript notes left on this subject by Doctor Smith,
wliich are here reproduced:

The deptli in the eartli to which it descends depends upon that of the vegetable
soil, and its location is at the bottom of the soil, except perhaps in some of the deep
soils of the West and the alluvial soils, where the depth of its descent is probably
only sufficient to protect it against the inclemency of the weather. This is generally
from 12 to 18 inches and sometimes 2 feet. It never changes its locality from the
time it enters the earth till it emerges. The cells in which they shut themselves up
are, inside, well finished and smooth, of a sufficient size to accommodate them; but
outside they are mere lumps of clay and afford by their appearance no clew to their
internal cliaracter. It is this fact that has caused all the doubt and mystery al)out
their place of residence and habits during their long continuance in the earth. A
gentleman in the winter of 1850-51 was excavating on the side of a low hill for the
purpose of building a wall on West Baltimore street. The excaA^ation was about 150
yards long and 6 to 18 feet deep to the level of the paved street. This hill had been
covered in former years with trees and shrubbery, and had been one of the fields of
obserA^ation in 1834. I watched this excavation daily and found the cells of the
locusts thrown down in the greatest abundance. The lumps of earth containing
the cells would roll down the heaps of earth just as others did, affording not the
slightest indication of their internal contents. But as the pick or the spade of the
workmen struck a cell in its place in the banks it readily broke open and the Isltxh
was exposed. AMien the excavation was completed the observ-er standing in the
street had a fine view of the broken cells in the bank. From one end of the bank
to the other the cells were plainly visible, appearing like small augur holes, and all in
a regular stratum of earth about 18 inches below the surface of the earth, from 2 to 4
or 5 inches apart, and none more than 1 or 2 inches higher or lower than the others.
The internal size of the cells was from 1^ to 2 inches long and about three-fourths of
an inch wide, forming an oblong cavity verj,^ smooth in its walls. The particles of
earth of which the cells were composed had evidently been agglutinated together
by some viscid fluid secreted by the insect. This is their habitation during the whole
seventeen years, or until they prepare for their ascent.

In the face of the testimony given above there are records also by
apparently trustworth}^ observers which seem to indicate that the
larvse are capable of going to much greater depths. An instance of
this sort is reported by Mr. Sadorus, of Port B3Ton, 111., who built a
house in 1853 and found that they came up in his cellar in 1854.
Others have reported fuidmg them at a deptli of 10 feet or even more
l)elow the surface. A rather remarkable instance is recorded b}- Mr.
Henry C. Suavely, of Lebanon, Pa., in wliich the Cicada pupa^ are
reported to have worked their way tlirough a hard mass of cinders
al)()ut 5 feet in thickness, wliich had l)een hnnly compacted.

MF/rilOD OF HIKKOWINO. 1 IJO

It is (lilUcult to say how many of those* roportcd occui-i-ciiccs at
unusual doptlis arc (hio to an unohscivcMl tunihlini: of sjx'c'nncns from
hii:h(4' levels, but \\ hci'c l he inscM'ts ha\'o hcMMi ohs(>r\(Ml lo issue l hioiiLrli
th(^ hot torn of collars or similar situations the infoi-inat ion would sccui
to ho itdiahlo. Tho faot remains, h()\vo\'(>r. that all of the oxicu^ixc
ilii^ginLrs in tho inv(*stitxation of tin* oarly iiistory of this insoot hoi(> in
"Washinirton and i^lsowhoro have conlirmod tho statcuniMUs of Doc I or
wSuiith: in othor words, tho insects luivo always boon found, as staled,
within L' fo(*t of tlu^ surface* and in i^roatost nundxMs hoiwoon I ho
(l(*|)ths of 8 and IS incluvs.

A curious foatun* in connoction with th(> underground life of this
ins(>ct is its aj)i)ar(MU ability to survive without injui-y in soil which
may have boon Hooded for a considerable ])oiiod. Dt)cloi- Snnih
records a case of this kind where a gentleman in Ijouisiana in Januaiy.
ISIS, built a milldam, thus overdowin^jj some land. In March of th(>
followin<r vear the water was drawn off and ''in removin"* a hard bod
of pipe clay that had been covered with water all of this time some 6
feet deep the locusts were found in a fine, healthy state, ready to niak(>
their appearance above ground, that being the year of thou- regular
aj)pearance." Another case almost exactly similar is re]K)rted by
Mr. Barlow. In this instance the building of a dam resulted in tho
submerging of the ground about an oak tree during several months
of every summer, ultimately resulting in the death of the tree. This
went on for several years, until the dam was washed away by a
freshet, when digging beneath the tree led to the discover}^ of the
Cicada larvse in apparently healthy condition from 12 to 18 inches
l)elow the natm^al surface of the ground. In both of these instances
the ground may have been nearly impervious, so that the water did
not reach the insects nor entu'ely kill all of the root growth in the
submerged soil.

THE METHOD OF BURROWING.

The actions of the Cicada beneath the soil are not readily investi-
gated, the newly hatched and more active individuals disap|)oaring
rather raj)i(lly and seeming to be quite at home in the oaith, as tluMi-
natural element. The method of Imrrowing of tho larger and paj-tly
grown specimens, as witnessed in captivity under fairly natural condi-
tions, is, as has been described in the manuscript notes of tho Bureau,
as follows: The larva scratches away the walls of its cell with the
femoral and tibial claws, grasping and tearing the earth and small
stones just as one would do with the hands, bracing itself against the
sides of its coll mainly l)y its hind and middle legs, the former in their
natural position and the latter stretched out over the back. If it is
rising, so that the earth reiiio\'ed naturally falls to the lowci- end of
the burrow, it simply presses the detached ])ortions on all sides, and

i26 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

especially on tlie end of the cavity, b}' means of its abdomen and
middle and hind legs. If the direction of the larva, however, is down-
ward, the loose soil has to be gathered and pressed against the upper
end of the cavit}^ which is accomplished b}^ making the soil into little
pellets by means particularly of the front femora and placing these
pellets on the cl}^eal part of the head, carrying them upward and
pressing them fii-mly against the top of the cavit}". The stiff haii-s
that cover the head and border the inner side of the fore tibiae and
femora assist very materially in securing the earth while it is ])eing
transported.

From time to time the l)urrowing insect rests and cleans the
adhering earth from its forelegs veiy much as a cat washes its face
with its paws. The large, strong forelegs are moved over the rough-
ened front of the head, the stifT hairs springing from the latter acting
like a comb or brush to free the spines of adhering earth.

DAMAGE OCCASIONED BY LARV^ AND PUP^.

During its underground life the Cicada has been charged Avith
damamno-, and even killing, fruit trees. At first thouo:ht this is not
an unnatural inference when one remembers the immense numbers in
wliich the insect often occm's. The most specific charge brought
against them in this particular is the account published by Miss
Morris in 1846.^^ Miss Morris having suspected for a number of years
that the failure of certain fruit trees over 20 jesiis old was mainly due
to the ravages of the larvae of the periodical Cicada, had an examina-
tion made of one of them, a pear tree that had been declining for a
number of years without apparent cause. She says:

Agreeably to my expectation I found the larvae of the Cicada in countless numbers
clinging to the roots of the tree, with their suckers piercing the bark and so deeply
and firmly placed that they remained hanging for a half an hour after being removed
from the earth. From a root a yard long and about an inch in diameter I gathered
23 larvse; they were of various sizes, from a quarter of an inch to an inch in length.
They were on all the roots that gi-ew deeper than 6 inches below the sm'face. The
roots were unhealthy, and bore the appearance of external injury from small
punctm-es. On removing the outer coat of bark this appearance increased, leaving
no doubt as to the cause of the disease.

In this particular instance there is some reason for believing that
the damage to the tree had been. caused by the larvae. The fact
remains, however, that no damage has ever been detected in forests,
where the Cicada emerges in countless myiiads, the trees presenting
as vigorous and robust a condition as in other districts where no
cicadas occur, and this is true also of old original trees and planted
trees in parks or private grounds. In orchards also where the insects
have been so abundant that the ground was almost honeycombed after

oProc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., December, 1846 (1848), vol. 3, p. 133.

NATIKAL KNKMIKS. 127

their tMiuM-LTiMice the ti-(H's thoinselvos (\\hil)it(Ml a iriunl stato of viLTor
aiul an inspcHiion of the roots rovoahMl n(» in:it(>ri}il iiijurx mixc some
small swelliiiLrs or eallosities with sliuht (hscoloi-nt ion which miirht
have resulted IVoin the piiiu'tiii'es.

The uiuleruroinul (h^N'elopment of the Cicada is so \c\\ slow . 1 liiiiccii
or seventeen years heinu: oecupiiMl in nttniniii^n size which wiili oilier
speeies is aeliievcul in as many days or ^\('eks, that the xciy slow
ahsorption o\' nutriment from th(> roots can scarcely have an\- clh'ct
on them, and the only injury, and this-is very slight, is prohahly due
to a poisoning of the roots, perha])s hy the beak of tjie insect, as
indicated by the slight discoloration of the cambium at the point of
puncture. Callosities and other irregularities are, however, rare,
and have never been observed by the writer. Very often also there
are, undoubtedly, long periods of rest or dormancy, during which no
food at all is taken.

Referring to the injury noted by Miss Morris, it is a well-known
fact that fruit trees have a natural term of life, and after twenty years
they are very apt to show weakness and loss of vigor, and cease to be
profitable. It is .possible, therefore, that this is the true explanation
of the condition of the trees noted by her rather than that it was due
to the presence of the larva? of the Cicada.

THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE CICADA.

The fact that the periodical Cicada appears above ground so rarely
prevents its having any peculiar or specific parasitic or natural
enemies. We can not conceive of any parasite breeding solely. either
in the adult Cicada or in its eggs which could persist during the long
period of years when no host w^as available. Equally remarkable
also would be a parasitic insect the term of whose life should be so
extended that it could live in the body of the Cicada larva during
the years of its slow- growth beneath the soil. Of the larger enemies
of the Cicada, such as bii'ds and mammals, the habit of feeding on
the Cicada is necessarily acquired anew with each recurrence of a
Cicada year.

All these facts have a very potent influence^ in protecting the ])eri-
odical Cicada, which, as we have already pointed out, is j^articularly
helpless, and were it not for these natural protective influences the
very existence of the species would probably be early brought to
an end.

During their subterranean existence, the larvie and pu})a?, when
near the surface, are doubtless subject to the attacks of various
predaceous coleopterous larvae, and many of them are unquestionably
destroyed l)y this agency. Upon leaving the ground to transform
they present an attractive food for many insectivorous animals, and
the pu])a^ and transfoi'ming adults are vigorously attacked by many

128 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

different reptiles, mammals, and bii'ds, and by cannibal insects,
such as ground beetles, dragon-flies, soldier-bugs, etc., while such
domestic animals as hogs and poultry of all kinds greedily feast upon
them. The preference shown by hogs running wild in woods for the
Cicada is especially marked, and we have elsewhere commented on
the fact of their rooting up the ground to get the pupae in April and
Ma}', Ijefore the cicadas have appeared at the surface of the ground
for transformation. The buxls are, perhaps, the most eflicient
destroyers of the Cicada, and, as w^e have already noted, the English
sparrow is particularl}" destructive to them in and near cities, and,
indeed, bids fair to completely exterminate them in such locations.^

In the perfect state they are attacked by at least one- parasitic fly
(TacMna sp.), which lives internally in the body of its host. One of
the large digger wasps, to be later described, also preys upon the
adult, provisioning its larval galleries with the stung and dormant
cicadas. The Cicada is also attacked by a fungous disease, some-
times so abundantly as ultimately to destroy most of the male and
many of the female insects.

In the egg state the Cicada has many very effective enemies, com-
prising mainly parasitic flies belonging to the orders H}inenoptera
and Diptera, and aJso various predaceous insects belonging to the
orders Hemiptera, Neuroptera, and Coleoptera. A number of well-
kno^\TL predaceous mites, and other mites whose habits seem to be
predaceous in this particular, are also found associated with the eggs
of the Cicada under such circumstances as to leave little doubt of their
feeding upon the eggs. All of these insect and mite enemies of the
Cicada are more or less general feeders, and are simply attracted in
numbers to the Cicada, and especially to the eggs in the case of the
egg parasites, on account of the abundance of the food presented. Li
other words, we are furnished with a striking example merely of ready
adaj^tation to new and favorable conditions. Tliis is true also of the
fungous disease of the Cicada, wliich is probably normally present in
other species of Cicada which are annual in appearance.

« This is well illustrated by the following experience in 1902 (Brood X) in the city
of Washington, as recorded by the ^^Titer: "Within the city very few of the cicadas
which came out survived more than a few hours, being quickly snapped up and
destroyed by the English sparrow. The numbers within the city were greatly dimin-
ished by the English sparrow at the appearance seventeen years ago, the destniction
by this bird at that time having been noted by Professor Riley and others to be very
considerable. The sparrows' work this year, however, was much more effective,
the cicadas being fewer in numbers; and I doubt whether a single individual, certainly
very few, ever reached the egg-laying period. For two or three days in the midst
of the trees on the ^luseum grounds a few song notes were heard, but ceased very
soon. In the woods in the country about the city, especially out toward Chevy
Chase, the Cicada appeared in very considerable numbers, and here did not suffer
very much from the attacks of birds, and for the most part went through the normal
aerial existence successfully." (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, Y, 1903, p. 24.)

DIPTKHOT'S KNKMIKS.

1L>0

1NSK( r r.vKAsri'Ks.

As alroady notod, ainoii*^ tlic more o(lVc(iv(» natural onomios of the
Cicada iwr tlic otluM* insects wliicli ])rcy npon llic ci^<j:s in tlic tw i<xs, on
tlic n(n\ ly-liatclic(l larva\ and also, ])u( to a nuicli less (>.\lcn(, on the
adults. The more coninion and cliai-actcristic of the insect enemies of
the (liiferent stages of the ])eriodical Cicada arc given ])elow:

l)ii'ii;i{()i s Enenhes.

Some four species of two-winged llieshaN'c Ixhmi found to subsist as
larva^ on tlu^ eggs of tlu^ Cicada, but none of these has been r(>ai-e(|
to tluMidult stage and. therefore, their specific- identification is impos-
sible.

One of these bears some resemblance to an asilid, or, perhai)s, more
remotc^ly, to a bombylid larva, and was found by Mr. K. AV. Allis at
Adrian, Mich., feeding on the contents of
the eggs of the Cicada, piercing the thin
shells and extracting the juices. These
larva^ are very minnte, not nmch exceeding
a millimeter in length.

The most interesting of the dipterous egg
parasit-es is a cecidomyiid, which was found
in February, 1886, with eggs deposited in
sumac the previous season. AATien ex-
amined, all the eggs had hatched except in
some instances where they had been sealed
up by the rapid growth of the wood, so as to
prevent the escape of the larvae. One of the
eggs thus inclosed was of an orange color,
in distinction from the normal yellowdsh-
white, and from it, on March 2, an orange-
colored cecidomyiid larva emerged. Other larvie, apparently of the
same species, were secured in May from eggs in alder twigs. From
none of these, however, were adult flies obtained. The larva? ranged
in length from 1 to l.o millimeters. Their general characteristics
are uidicated in the accompanying illustration (fig. 52).

The fly parasite of the adult C'cada seems to belong to th(^ family
Tachinida^, which includes a number of species similarly attacking
grasshoppers as well as many other insects. The larvae of these flies,
which have not been carried to the adult stage, sometimes to the
number of half-dozen or more, will occur together in tlie body of a
Cicada, which they have almost or quite completely eaten out.
•M 1 17— No. 71—07 y

Fig. 52.— Cecidomyiid eyg parasite
of the periodical Cicada: Larva,
mucli enlarged, with anatomical
details at side. vOriginal.)

130

THE PEKIODU'AL CICADA.

HEMiFfERors Enemies.

A few predaceoiis Ilemiptera were found associated A^th Cicada
esfsrs under such circumstances as to leave little doubt but that thev
were subsisting on them. Among these were two species of Thrips,
which were found both in the larval and adult stages in several

instances about the e^^s on
^ which they had been feeding.

The material that has been
preserved of these Thrips is
not now in condition to be
worked up. Both species are
probably undescribed.

Hymexopterous Enemies.

The hymenopterous ene-
^ ^^^ mies of the Cicada comprise

FlG.53.-Eggparasite,ia^ftro;»em«cad^.- a, female; ^ HUmber of egg parasitCS,
b, abdomen of male; c, antemia of male; d, antenna of which are the more important
female. All greatlv enlarged (original.) • • t 'j.- xu

^ ' s V 6 ^ agencies m Imiitmg the num-

bers of the insect, and the large digger wasp already mentioned.
The fact that the eggs and the newly hatched larvse are much sought
after by various species of ants was early commented upon, Doctor
Potter stating that they are constanth^ infested by legions of ants,
both before and aft&r they are
hatched. He sa^^s:

Even the little red species, the most
diminutive of the race, will shoulder the
eggs and the young and bear them off
to their cells. In all our researches we
found them in battalions systematically
arrayed for wholesale plunder and de-
vastation.

Doctor Smith corroborates
Professor Potter, stating that he
has himself observed a small red
ant, scarcely as large as its in-
tended victim (a 3^oung Cicada
larva), seize the latter, shoulder
it, and start off at a great speed.

Fig. f)-!.— Female Sphecius carrying a Cicada to her
l)urrow. Natural size (after Riley).

THE PARASITES OF THE EGGS.

Several egg parasites were reared from the eggs of the Cicada, but
with one exception were not abundant in the course of extensive
Single individuals were secured of a mymarid, a tricho-

breedings.

PAKASITKS OF TlIK K(;(}S.

131

jjraniirJd, jitk] two clmlciduls. 'V\\v ('.\c('])t('(l sixM-ics. Ijowcnci-. lias
l)0(Mi ivportcMl a> ()('cm-i-inu- in {Miornioiis inimlxMs, niul ^\a^^aIlt.s a
iiiori* carofiil accoiml .

.Vtlcnlion .-^(>(Mn^^ to \\i\\o Ixmmi lii'sl calhul t<> tlii> |)arasit(* 1)\ Mi-.
AVIUiaiii T. Ilartmaii in a l(Mt(M' dated OctolxM" ;>, iSdS, to Docloi-
Walsh. Ill this. Mr. Ilai'tniaii states that in ^et t ini;- sonic twius, from

Fig.

-Burrows of Spficciu.^

ypedosua: c, c, c, main entrance; c, c, c, r, chanil)ors for l;irv;i- aiul tlicir
food. Greatly rodiicod (after Kiley).

whicli lio lio])ed to ol)tain tlie lai'Viv ol" the Cicada, from an oal< whicli
liad h(HMi Acry thickly ()vi])()sited in, he found, aftei' hnivin^- tin* tree,
that his head and clothes were covered with what seemed to be small
red Hies. The branches secured were kept in his office for several davs

and the little red flies a])])(nir(Ml auain in
eountless numbers. The examination of
these Hies under a microseope showed that
tliey were minute ITymenoptera instead
of I)i])tera, as he first supposed. He ob-
tained very few larva^ of the (^icada from
these shoots, and consecpiently inferred
that ]:)raetically all of the eggs had l)een
parasitized by this insect. lie states also
that a neighbor of his trapped thousands
of them in the soft paint which had been
newly applied to his window shutters, and
that by the middle of August this niimite
parasite was '^ everywhere in force."

AVhat is prol)ably the same insect (fig.
53) was reared in some egg-infested twigs
collected by Mr. T. Pergande in A'irginia
in July, 1885. Doctor Howard has exam-
ined these specimens^ and pronounces them
to })e a new species of a European genus not liitluMto recorded from
this ccmtinent, and has descril)ed them under ih(> naiii(> Jjithromeris
cicadije." The hfe cycle of tliis niinnte parasite is evi(hMitly so short
that it is possible for it to pass through two oi- three generations

Fig. ST).— Adult Cicada with Spheciti;
egg attached at a. Natural sizo (af
ter Kiley).

"Canadian Entcmi.. vol. 30. April. 1S08. pp. 102. 103.

132

THE PEKIODICAL CICADA.

within tlie eg^^ period of seven or eiglit weeks of the Cicada, and this
accounts for its excessive niultiphcation, as described by Mr. Hart-
man, and probably makes it wherever it occurs one of the most
efficient agencies in kee])ing the Cicada in check.

THE LAli(;ER ])!(;(; KIl \VA8I'.

I have already referred to the pro])al)ility of tlie larger digger wasp
{S phecius snecioi^ as Dru.) greying on ])elated individuals of the period-
ical Cicada. That
J the bulk of the

brood has disap-
peared, however,
fl^ ., _ • ':^Mfel^!^^T ^SBEb ■ before this wasj)

f' ' ''^^^^^BiES^^PR'^^V becomes at all

a b u n d a n t h a s
been often pointed
out and is not to
be questioned, and

va of latter [j^ [^ ^yQ[\ kuoWU

that the most of
its work is with the later-appearing dog-day harvest fly (Cicada
tihicen L.). With the assistance of Mr. Pergande and the writer, Pro-
fessor Riley worked out the natural history of this wasp in detail in
its relation to the dog-day harvest fly, and published a full illus-

Fig. 57.— Cicada in l^urrow of Sphecius, with full-grown 1
feeding. Natural size (after Rilej^).

Fig. 58.— Sj)hecius speciosus: a, larva; b, pupa, from below; c, same, from side, natural size; c, head
of larva; /, labium of same; g, maxilla of same. Enlarged (after Riley).

trated account of the species." Its life liabits when it preys on the
]>eri()dical Cicada are identical with its habits with the dog-day
species or any other amnial Cicada with which it may store its bur-
rows. A brief account of the habits of this wasp is here reproduced,
together Avith the figures illustrating its very curious and interesting
life stages. (See figs. 54-60.)

a Insect Life, Vol. IV, March, 1892, pp. 248-252.

THE lAROKK DIOCIKK WASP.

133

This wasp and its near allies are \]\v natural and p(M-ha])s tlu^ most
destructive* of the inscM't eneinicvs of {\w adults of the dinercnt species
of the Cicada, and their ()p(M'atit)ns are often witnessed and arc coiu-
niented u])on in ])rint nearl}' every season. In fact, no inoic curious
and interc^stinu' illustration of the wars which take ])lace in the inxMt
world isatVordcMl than th(vsioht of on(M)r th(\s(Mvas|)s scM/inii; its victim
and silencini^: and ])aralyzini2: it with a sting, which, while throwin«i: it
into a conuitose condition from which it never recovers and suspendin^z;
or greatly reducing its vital functicms, does not actually kill it, but
leaves it an iniresisting, living ])rey for the delicate wasp larva.

The fact that some tragedy is being enacted is often brought to the
attention of the observer by the sudden cessation of the regular song
note of the unsus])ecting Cicada. The song ends in a shar]) cry of
distress, and if one is in position to witness the struggle the wasp may
be seen grasping its
victim and endeav-
oring to take lUght,
the quick thrust of
its sting having al-
most immediately
quieted the Cicada.
A^ery often in the
first struggle the
wasp and the Ci-
cada fall to the
ground together,
and it is necessary
for the former la-
boriously to climl)
the tree again, drag-
gino: the Cicada
with it, in order to take flight from an elevated ])oint, the Cicada luMug
usually much heavier than the wasp and bearing the latter slo\\l\'
to the ground as it flies. For this reason it often l)ec()mes nec(\ssarv
for the v/asp to carry the Cicada several times up into near-by trees,
making repeated short flights before it reaches its burrow.

The latter Ls excavated with gnvit activity by the was]), tin* dric^r
and more elevated situations being usually chosen. The burrow
ranges from IS inches to 2 or 3 feet in length and has three or four or
more branches of from G inches to a foot in length, c^ach terminating
in a little oval chamber. Within each of th(\se chambers is stored a
Cicada to which a single wasp egg is attached in such manner as to be
covered and ])r()tected by one of the middle legs of the Cicada.

The parasitic larva on hatching merely protrudes its head and
makes an <)])ening into the body of its host at some suture where

^ui'

Fig. 59. — Larvu of Sphecius spinning
Riley) .

Natural size (ailer

134

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

entrance is easy, and slowly feeds on the soft, juicy interior. The
larya remains outside of the Cicada tliroughout its life, but by means
of its yerv' extensile anterior segments, or neck, thrusts its small head
throughout the mterior of the Cicada and trradually exhausts the soft
parts until the Cicada l)ecomes a mere broken
shell. The wasp larya increases in size yery
rapidly, ultimately attainmg a length of 1^ to 2
mches. It Ls then nearly white m color, with
the head and mouth parts remarkably well
deyeloped and the anterior segments narrowed
and capable of yery great extension. The whole
transformation from the egg to the full-g^o^\^l
larya is comprised in a yery brief period, the egg,
hatchmg after two or three days and the laryal
life not much exceeding a week.

Wlien fully grown the larya constructs a co-
coon in a yery peculiar mamier. First a cylm-
der, open at both ends, is formed of earth with
enough silk mcorporated to form a rather dense and tough pod.
When the cocoon is nearly completed the ends are capped, and the
larya remains unchanged oyer ^\dnter and transforms to a pupa in the
spring or early summer shortly before the appearance of the mature

a

Fig. 60.— o, cocoon of Sphecius,
natural size; b, enlarged sec-
tion of pore. (After Riley.)

Fig. 01.— Mite egg parasite, OribaieUa
(Author's illustration).

Fig. 62. — Mite egg parasite, Oripoiia
elongata. (Author's illustration).

insect. About the center of the cocoon are a number of yery curious
structures which may serye as breathing pores until the larya has
become accustomed to its new conditions, since they are ultuuatcly
sealed oyer, as represented in the illustration (fig, 60, I).

MITE

AKASITKS OF TIIK KGGS.

135

Most of th(^ fossorial wasps luivi^ liabits very similar to tins sjx'cics,
but many of the otlior ^onora provision their nests ^^itll tlic lai-va'of
J^epidoptera t)r with Orthoptcra or sonuiimcs with the larirei' spidei-s.

MiTK Tauasiths ok the Imk'.s.

Of \hc mit(\s found (Mther j)reyiniz; on the ejj;^s of the Cicada or asso-
ciated with them in such nuinner as to suii:«2:est a ])redaceoiis hahit,
s(»V(*ral represent species which arc well known to subsist on soft-
bod icnl insects or other animal food. An almost equal number, how-
cxcv, b(don*r to a family of mites, tlie Oribatida^, wliich, so far as the
hal)its of the species are known, comprises, with few exceptions,
strictly herbivorous mites,
or such as subsist on vegeta-
bl(^ d(^cay. A few species,
how (^ver, of this family pos-
sess month structures which
indicate that they usually
prey on other msects, and
some of them are known to
feed on decaying anunal sub-
stances. In this country-
two species have been re-
corded as being true insect
parasites, namely, Noihrus
oiyivorus Pack, and Orihata
aspidioti Ashm., the former
having been observed to
suck the eggs of th(^ canker-
worm, and the latter to feed
on scale insects in Florida.
The t}q)es of these two spe-
cies have not been preserved,
and there is some doubt as
to their correct reference.

All of the mites associated, with the eggs of the Cicada, botli tliose
of doubtful and those of well-known predaceous habits, were invail-
ably found in the egg slits, dowTi among the woody fibers, ^\here
they could have little choice of food, except that supplied by the
Cicada eggs. In no case were the mites actually observed to be
feeding on the eggs, but frequently the eggs were more or less shriveled
and tlie contents extracted.

All of tlie mites referred to below liave been examined for me by
Mr. Nathan Banks, a specialist in this group, who has identified and
described the material as far as its condition, as balsam mounts, i)er-
mits. The accompanying il

Fig. 63.

-Mite egg parasite, Oppia pilom.
tratioii).

(.Viithor's \\\\\<

lustrations are from very careful drawings

136

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

made several years since by Mr. Pergande, who collected several of
the mites and mounted and made preliminan^ studies of the others.
Much of the material was collected by ^Ir.
E. W. ^Vllis at Adrian, Mich., in 1885, the balance
by Mr. Pergande in the District of Columbia and
near-by Cicada districts in Virginia in the same
year.

THE ORIBATID MITES.

Fig. 64.— Mito egg parasite,
Pediculoides ventricosus.
(Author's illustration.)

The members of the family Oribatidse have
the popular designation of '^ beetle mites," aris-
ing from their possessing a hard cliitinous cover-
ing causing them to resemble minute beetles.
Some six distinct species were found in the adult
stage associated with the eggs of the Cicada, and
several nymphal forms — the latter being often
showily colored and the principal feeding stage
of these mites.

The following are Mr. Banks's determinations

of the oribatid material: (1) Orihata sp., collected by Mr. Pergande in

the District of Columbia in July, 1885; (2) Orihatella sp. (fig. 61), col-
lected by Mr. E. W. Allis at Adrian,

Mich., in October, 1885; (3) Oripoda

elongata Bks., MS. (fig. 62), collected

with the last; (4) Oppia pilosa Bks.

(fig. 63), also collected at Adrian,

Mich.; (5) Orihatula sp., collected

by Mr. Pergande in the District

of Columbia and in Virginia in

July, 1885; (6) Oribatid nymphs,

collected with the last and possi-
bly belonging to the same species;

(7) HoplopJiofa sp., collected by

Mr. Allis in Michigan in October,

1885.

MISCELLAXEOrS PREDACEOIS MITES.

The following mites have well-
known predaceous habits and for
the most part are miscellaneous

feeders, subsist ino; on almost anv l'^i«- '■>5.-Mite egg parasite, ryro^Z.yp/^r/.rora-
. . ^ " philus. (Author's illustration.)

available animal matter, such as

s()ft-lK)died insects, insect eggs, and various animal and also vegetable

food ])ro(lucts.

MISCELLANEOUS PRKDACKors MI'IKS.

137

Perhaps the niito most eoiumonly found with i lie csxi^s of tlic Cicnda
is Pcdiculoidcs i^cufrimsus' Xew j). 'Idiis species lias a ncin irciici-al Iccd-
inij; habit and isoftcMi an acl ixc a^ciil in iIhmIcsI i-nd ion of tlie e^<rs or
youn^ of insect ])(>sis. In briH'dinii; caiiics it is often a nnisance 1)\'
destroyin^i; the sniallei- insects IxMnu* kepi under ol)ser\at ion. 'I'he
general form of tlu> male and of the unin; pi-(>H-nate(l female of tliis
mite is similar to that of the next species listivl. 'Hie gravid female,
however, ch^velops an enormous globular extension from the tip of lier
abdomcMi. as illustrated in the accompanying figure (fig. 64).

Another })re(laee()us mite, not at all unconnnon, in the egg slits of the
Cicada, both in the District of Columbia and in Michigan, is Tynxjhjphas
cocciphilas Bks. (fig. 65), very near T. longior Gerv., which sTxvies it

Fig. 66.— Mite pgg parasite, Iphis ovalis.
(Author's illustration.)

Fig. 67. — Chvi/lrtus s])., iiiitc egg
parasite of Cicada. (Author's
illustration.)

very closely resembles. The species named is a widely distributed one
and fre(|uently occurs also in breeding cages, and often becomes ver}^
troublesome from its presence in enorn.ous numbers on various food
substances in the larder. A smaller species of the same genus was
found with the Cicada eggs, but the material is not in good enough
condition to make its identification possible.

A species belonging to the family Gamasidic was found b}' ^Ir. Allis
associated with the v^^^^s of the Cicada (fig. 66). It is apparently an
undescribed species and is certainly distinct from the half dozen
known from North America. Mr. Banks has suggested for it the name
Iphis oralis. Tlie family to which it belongs includes li'ue insect
parasites which either live free or attached to their hosts, and there
is little doubt but that this mite was attracted by the Cicada eggs.

138

THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Two mites, one belonging to the genus Cheyletns (fig. ^67) and the
other to the genus Bdelhi (fig. 68), were found associated with the eggs
of the Cicada in Virginia in July, 1885. Both of these mites seem to
be und escribed, but the material is not in good enough condition to
warrant their description. Both genera are known to be carnivorous,
and the s})ecimens secured had doubtless been preying on the Cicada
eggs.

THE VERTEBRATE ENEMIES.

Under this heading I will supplement merely the general state-
ments given elsewhere on the destruction of the Cicada by l)irds.
mannnals, etc., by quoting the observations of Mr. A. W. Butler,
who devoted considerable attention to the natu-
ral enemies of the Cicada in 1885 in southeast-
ern Indiana. His lists and notes, which follow,
could be much extended and, if all the enemies
of the Cicada were known, would doubtless in-
clude all the insectivorous birds and mammals
occurring ^^dthin the range of this insect. He
savs :

Fig

—Bdella sp., mite
parasite of eggs of Cicada.
Greatly enlarged (author's
illustration).

o- Among birds the English sparroTV. Passer domesticus
(Linn.), is perhaps its greatest enemy. Within one week
from the date of the appearance of the Cicada in Brookville
not one could be found, and I doubt if a single specimen
^Yas permitted to deposit its eggs, owing to the persistent
warfare waged by this garrulotis sparrow.

Of native birds the robin, Merula migratoria (Linn.);
blackbird, Quiscalus quiscula ceneiis (Ridg.); catbird. Gale-
oscoptes carolinensis (Linn.); red -headed woodpecker,
Melanerpes erythrocephaliis (Linn.); flicker, Colaptes aiiratus
liUeus Bangs; towhee, Pipilo erythrophthalmus (Linn.), and
orchard oriole. Icterus spurius (Linn.) were their greatest
enemies. Food of every other sort appeared to be neglected in order that they might
feast for a limited period upon the easily captured Cicada,

Of other birds examined, the following contained Cicada remains: Brown thrasher,
Toxostoma n(fum (Linn.); Baltimore oriole. Icterus galbula (Linn.); scarlet tanager,
Piranga erythromclas Vieill.; blue-gray gnatcatcher, PoUoptila cxrulea (Linn.); worm-
eating warbler, Helmitherus vermivorus (Gmel.); purple martin, Progne subis (Linn.);
wood pewee, Horizopus virens (Linn.)', wood thrush, Ilylocichla mustcUna (Gmel.);
yellow-throated vireo, Lanivireo jlavifrons (Viell.); cardinal grosbeak, Cardinalis car-
dinalis (Linn.); tufted titmouse, Ba'olophus bicolor (Linn.); Carolina chickadee ,.Pf?2-
thestes carolinensis (Aud.); chipping sparrow, Spizella socialis (Wilson); downy wood-
pecker, Dryobates pubescens medianus (Swains); crested flycatcher, Myiarchus crinitus
(Linn.); indigo bird, Passerina cyanea (Linn.); cow bird, Moloihrus ater (Bodd.);
white-bellied nuthatch, Sitta carolinensis Lath.; yellow-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus amer-

o The nomenclature of the birds and mammals mentioned in this extract has been
revised for this bulletin by Mr. Harry C. Oberholser, of the Bureau of Biological Sur-
vey, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

FUNGOUS DISEASE OF THE ADULTS. 130

icaniis (Linn.); black-bilUnl cvickoo. ('. (•n/tlir(>{)liflmliiiiitt (^Wilson); Amorican ^'old-
fmch, AstriKjalinns (ristis (lAwu.); crow, ('onus brdcliifrfn/urhos lircliin. and «c(lar
bird. Ainpclis ccdroruni (Vioill.^.

But two specimens (»f all the hirds exaniinetl showetl no evidence ol" cicada caiini:.
These were the cerulean warbler. Dcndroica cerulca (Wilson), and the warhlini: \ ireo,
Viirosi/Irn (jilva (Vieill.V Most birds eat oidy the softer parts, but some sj)ecies ilie
robin, brown thrasluM-. towhee. and a lew otiiers — eat also the winji;s and leii;.>^. and
even occasionally the head.

I found fox ."^ciuirrels, Sciunis nijirenler Geoffroy, eatin<4: llicni. ihc Noun-^ .--hiiu inix
i^rt>at(M- fondness for this food than did their parents. The ground scjuirrel, or ( hip-
munk, Taiiiias striatus Baircl, was very fond of them. I have seen this mannind
climb to the highest limbs of an apple tree seeking cicadas.

\\ hen cicadas fell into our streams many of them became the prey of various species
of lish. Our fishermen complained of their inal)ility to get fish to take the IkmiI^ while
they were feeding upon this new food. The remains of this insect were found in l)l;i( k
ba.-^s. }fl(ropten(s salmaides JlenshdW; blue catfish, Ichthxlurus punctatus Jordan, and
white sucker, Catostonuis teres Le S.

Rev. D. R. Moore, a vaUied fellow-work(M-, found two species of snails, Mesodon
exoleta Rinn., and M. ehvata Say, feeding upon dead Cicadas. This fact was a great
surprise to me. But few instances were recorded of digger wasps killing those insects.
Stizits grandis Say « was the only species observed. Aside from the enemies men-
tioned above, there were many others to which I could not direct my attention. In
general, it may be said that beetles, spiders, and other insect enemies prey upon them
incessantly, while parasitic flies, scavenger beetles, and ants destroy great nimibers of
their dead bodies.

THE FUNGOUS DISEASE OF THE ADULTS.

Tlio peculiar fungous disease of the adult cicadas was noticed by
Dr. Joseph Leidy in the Proceedings of the Philadel])hia Academy of
Sciences for 1851, page 235, and has since been described as Mas-
sospora cicadina by Prof. C. H. Peck.^ Mr. W. T. Hartman, of
West Chester, Pa., speaking of the occurrence of this fungus in 1851,
says:

The posterior part of the abdomen in a large number of male locusts was filled l>y a
greenish fungus. * * "^ The abdomen of the infected males was usually inflated,
dry, and brittle, and totally dead wdiile the insect was yet flying about. Upon break-
ing off the hind ])art of the abdomen, the dust-like spores would fly as from a small
puff hall.

One jiiale specimen, received in 1868 from Pennsylvania, was
affected by the same or a similar fungus, the internal parts of the
abdomen being converted into what appeared to be a brown mold.
K. II. Warder, of Cleves, Ohio, in speaking of this mold, says:

1 found that in many '-ases the male organs of generation remained so liiinlN' atiachcd
to the female during copulation that the male could only disengage himself by break-
ing away and leaving oni^ or two posterior joints attached to the female, and it is these
mutilated males which 1 found affected by the peculiar fungus mentioned, and there-
fore conclude that the dry rot might l)e the result of the broken membranes.

o Synonymous with Sphecins spedosvs Drury.

b Thirty-hi.-t Kept. X. Y. State Museum Xal. Hist., 1S7!), ]>. II.

140 THE PERTODKWL CICADA.

It is well establislied, however, that both males and females are
affected by this disease, the former, however, in the greatest num-
bers, and that it is by no means confined to injured individuals.

Professor Peck describes this disease in general terms as follows:

The fungus develops itself in the abdomen of the insect, and consists almost wholly
of a mass of pale-yellowish or clay-colored spores, which to the naked eye has the
appearance of a lump of whitish clay. The insects attacked by it become sluggish
and averse to flight, so that they can easily be taken by hand. After a time some of
the posterior rings of the abdomen fall away, revealing the fungus within. Strange as
it may seem, the insect may, and sometimes does, live for a time in this condition.
Though it is not killed at once, it is manifestly incapacitated for propagation, and
therefore the fungus may be said to prevent to some extent the injury that would
otherwise be done to the trees by these insects in the deposition of their eggs. For
the same reason, the insects of the next generation must be less numerous than they
otherwise would be, so that the fungus may be regarded as a beneficial one. In
Columbia County the disease prevailed to a considerable extent. Along the line of
the railroad between Catskill and Livingston stations many dead cicadas were found,
not a few of which were filled by the fungoid mass.<^

Professor Peck was not able to satisfy himself as to the time when
the Cicada is attacked by this fungus, suggestmg the possibility of its
having entered the ground with the larva and slowly developed with
its host, or perhaps entering the bod}' of the pupa at the moment that
it emerges from the gromid, with the third possibility of its developing
annually in the cicadas which appear every year, and becoming much
more abundant, and therefore noticeable, in the years of the appear-
ance of the great swarms of periodical cicadas. The latter supposi-
tion is unquestionably the correct explanation. Mr. A. W. Butler
refers to this disease at some length in his notes on the Cicada in
southern Indiana in 1885, and is of the opinion that nearly all of the
male cicadas which are not killed by birds and other enemies ulti-
mately succumb to this disease.

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES.
THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE PROBLEM.

In discussmg this subject it is well to be again reminded that the
fears aroused by the presence of this insect when in great numbers are
unquestionably out of all proportion to the real damage likely to be
done. While the}^ are most abundant m old and midisturbed forest
tracts and confine their work for the most part to forest trees, it is true
also that in parks and lawns, especially such as contain trees of the
original forest growth or their natural and immediate successors, the
cicadas sometimes appear in scarcely diminished numbers. This is
true also of orchards located on cleared lands or in the vicinity of
standing forests, and under such circumstances instances of serious or
fatal results to cherisliod plants or fruit trees are not uncommon.

aLoc. cit., pp. 19,20.

roM.Kcnox OK ADri/rs. 141

Xotwitlistandin^r tlu^ occasionnl instances of sci-ions injury 1)\ the
Cicada, it is j)r()l)al)l\*st ill tiMic lliat tlici'c is no otiici- important
injurious inscM-t in this count i-\ that is responsible for so little sei'ious
(lanui«j^e in proportion to the fears aroused, and yet every nH'urrence of
this iiis(M't calls forth tlu* most anxious demands foi- means of control
or exterminat ion. 'V\\v exploit at ion of t he facts concern in^^ t his insect
is, tli(M*(»fore, mow to allay such f(*ars, and to su|)ply the desire for
information conc(M'nin*z: it which its pn^sence always arouses, than
from the necessity of (hMailinii; elal)oi"at(* |)recaut ionary m(>asui'es.

It is, lu^vertheless, important to know what may he done in the way
of protection and control \\h(Miever occasion arisc^s to make such
action n(H'(\ssary, as for tlu^ |)rotection of youn^j: fruit t r(M*s which are
especially c^xposcul to injury or trees and shrubs over limited areas, as
in |)arks and lawns.

Prc^caut ionary o|)erations are necessarily against the adults chi(»(ly,
as being the authors of the greater damage. Against the larva' and
])upa^ in their subterranean life it is hardly worth while to take any
action unless it be deemed desirable to attempt to exterminate a brood
within a given territory or bit of woodland, in which case the remedies
connnonly employed against other subterranean insects, such as the
Phylloxera or other root lice, will serve for this insect equally well,
especially in the first year or two of its existence.

The prevention of injury from the Cicada includes, therefore, (1)
methods of destroying the emerged insects, either mechanically or by
insecticide applications; (2) applications to the plant to prevent
oviposit ion; (3) certain precautionary measures which may be taken
to lessen injury; and (4) operations to destroy the larval and pupal
stages in the soil.

MEANS OF DESTROYING THE EMERGED PUP^ AND ADULTS.

Collection of Adults.

In some instances the hand collection of the insects is feasible and
will prevent damage. This method necessitates the continual drivijig
of the insects from the plants by fighting or collecting them hi umbrel-
las or bags in the early morning or late evening when they are some-
what torpid and sluggish. If undertaken at the first appearance of
the Cicada and repeated each day, the work of control will be facili-
tated l)y the fact that most of the insects will be on the young trees or
shrul)b(Ty or on the lower branches of larger trees and witlun com-
paratively easy reach.

An instance of tliis kind of work is recorded by Mr. Abner Hoopes,
of West Cliester, Pa." The work re|)orted was for the protection of
nurserv stock on the edire of woods from the attack of Brood X in

a Entomological News, Vol. XVIII, March, 1907, pp. 108, 109.

142 THK PKIIIODUAL CICADA.

1902. There were 240,000 peach trees m the field to be ])rotected,
and seven men were kept at work in this fiehl for over two weeks, and
by actual count it was found that these men Idlled more than 1,000
cicadas each per day by hand collecting. Seventy thousand cicadas
were collected in this field alone, and other men were employed in the
smaller fields, so that ^Ir. Iloopes feels sure that at least 100,000
were killed altogether. In sj>ite of this work, however, a loss of 12.000
trees was sustained out of the 240,000.

Destruction with Insecticides.

Tiie various treatments aiming at the destruction of the insects
themselves have yielded satisfactory results, but to have any j^racti-
cal value it is necessary to continue them daily or as long as the
insects issue in any numbers. On a large scale, therefore, or over a
considerable territory, in the presence of immense swarms, work of
this sort will be ordinarily out of the c(uestion. The recommenda-
tions apply particularly, therefore, to small areas or orchards. Sucli
work may be directed against the Cicada the moment it emerges from
the ground, while still in the pupal stage, but perhaps more readily
and successfully against the insect after it has shed its pupal skin and
is still soft and comparatively helpless, and with less ease, but still
with some degree of effectiveness, after it has hardened and begun
its aerial duties.

Of the many substances experimented \\4th few proved to be of
much value, the best results being obtained with (1) p^Tethrum or
insect powder, using it both in the dry form and as an ac[ueous solu-
tion; (2) kerosene emulsions; and (3) solutions of various acids.
These substances either effected the immediate death of the insect,
or attained this end indirect^ by preventing its transformation from
the pupal to the adult stage; in other words, rendering the last molt
impossible.

Pyrethrum powder is a perfectly satisfactory destroyer of the newly
transformed and soft cicadas, and has considerable efficacy against
the mature and hardened individuals. The best results are obtained
in the morning, before the insects have gained full strength to ascend
and while the plants are still wet A\dth dew. The powder may be
puffed on the insects while clinging to shrubbery or on the lower
branches of the larger trees.

PATethrum powder is absolutely worthless against the pup?e, which
even when thoroughly coated with it, will often succeed in casting off
their powdered skins and escape uninjured. The winged insects are,
however, very sensitive to the powder, and after an application soon
show signs of uneasiness and in the course of a few hours fall helpless
to lh(^ ground, where, though they may continue to have t\\v power of
motion for a dav or more, a fatal termination is almost sure to follow.

APriJCATIONS TO 1»KK\KNT OV Il^oSITIoN. 143

The pyrothruin and water mixture is ])rej)are(l \)\ stiriinir np as
miieh of th(* powder as IIk^ wat(M- will hold in susjxMision, or n little
milk may 1)(> adihul lo incri^ase \\\o lioldinii; J)o\\(M* of the watci". Tlic
residts obtained with j)yrethrnm in \\at(M- against the transformed
insects are as satisfactory as with the di-y ])()\\(lcr, with the additional
advantaixe of its hcini:; j)ossil)lc to throw \\\c watci' hy forces pumps to
])arts of the |)lant whiu'e it would \h' dillicult to i)lace the powder.
Airainst the j)uj)a\ the water solution is more ell'ective than the
])ow(l(M', hut is l(^ss so than kcM'oseiu* emulsion.

Kerosene (unulsion, as an a])i>lication for d(\strovintjj the emer<r(»(l
])U])a^ and adults, is us(m1 in V(M-v stron^i: solution, or at a strength
ranixinii: fi'om oni^ j)art of the emulsion to one of wat(M" uj) to a dilution
of the enudsion with ei*^ht ])arts of water. The <j^reat(M' stren<^ths were
more innnediate in their effects, but even with the more (lilut(Ml washes
very satisfactory results have been obtamed. The enudsion at once
stops all molting or transformation. Applied to the partly trans-
formed insects, the soft wings harden into shapeless masses, and while
occasional individuals may survive the treatment for two days or
more, the a])])lication is usually fatal in the end. The treated pup«
are iniable to transform to the adult stage and they eventually die or
are devoured by their natural enemies. The death of the mature and
hardened insect is caused by closing its breathing pores A\dth the oily
mixture, and in the case of the partly expanded or soft, immature
individuals by the caustic effect it has on the forming wings and soft
body.

The experiments with acids demonstrated also that exuviation may
be prevented by spraying the newly emerged pupa with a 2 per cent
solution of carbolic acid or a 15 per cent solution of acetic acid.

Applications to Prevent Oviposition.

All the early experiments with washes or other applications to
prevent oviposition proved unavailing except such protections as
could be a])plied to small trees or shrubs, such as covering them wdth
netting. Professor Riley in 1868, and later, at his instance, Dr.
W. S. Barnard, tested a number of repellent substances, such as
kerosene emulsion, various oils, and carbolic-acid solutions, all ]nin-
gent and disagreeably smelling sid^stances, with results either unsat-
isfactory or of negative value.

In the occurrence in 1902 of Brood X souk* indications were obtained
showing the possible protective value of lime washes. Mr. Slinger-
land reports that spraying a heavy coat of whitewash on the trees
will keep the locusts away to some extent when there are other
tre(vs in the neighborhood, lie states that the reason for this seems
to be that the insects do not like to sit on a white surface. The

144 THE PKKIODICAL CICADA.

females will, however, oviposit on whitewashed twisrs if there is no
other place for them.

The experience reported ])y Mr. AV. B. Alwood " would seem to
indicate that the injury from the Cicada in orchards is prevented by
the use of Bordeaux mixture. The cicadas appeared in tidl force in
a yount]^ orchard which had been sprayed with this mixture, but
practically all mi^rrated elsewhere without ovipositing in the trees.
Other orchards near the one referred to b}^ Mr. Alwood were badly
punctured. In view of tliis experience it may be that Bordeaux
mixture or the lime-sidphur wash will prove a valuable preventive of
injur}' from tliis insect.

PuKCAlTIONAIiY ^[EAS^•RES.

In view of the difficulty of controlling tliis insect on a large scale
after it has once emerged, it is well to adopt any precautionary
measures that may tend to lessen or cUstribute the injury. The
advent of all the large and well-recorded broods is commonly heralded
in advance in the local papers by State entomologists or other per-
sons who take interest in such recurrences. Forewarned in tliis way,
much injury and loss may be avoided by neglecting all pruning
operations during the winter and spring prior to the expected appear-
ance of the Cicada in ordei' to offer a larg-er twig gro^^i:h and distrib-
ute by this means the damage over a greater surface. Another pre-
caution, when a Cicada year is expected, is to defer the planting of
orchards, especially in the ^^iciiiit}" of old orchards or forest land,
until the danger is past. The same advice applies to budding or
grafting operations in the fall and spring prior to the Cicada's appear-
ance. Much disappointment arising from injury to orchards or val-
uable nursery stock may thus be avoided. Vigorous young trees
will, it is true, often recover in three or four years from the effects
of a loss of or injury to a considerable percentage of their branches,
but it is difhcult to overcome the unsymmetrical appearance which
will commonly result from the indiscriminate pruning caused by the
work of this insect, and the gnarled and scarified branches will long
bear testimony to the industry of the female insect.

Much of the injury occasioned by the cutting of the twigs by the
female Cicada in depositing her eggs can be remedied by subsequent
pro])er treatment of the wounded plant. In the case of old trees, the
main object to be secured is the rapid healing of the Avounds and the
prevention of their being used as points of secondary attack b}^ other
insects. The worst injured limbs in such trees should be cut out, so
that all the vigor of the plant may be directed to the remaining wood.
Any treatment also, as of thorough cultivation or the use of ferti-

aProc. loth Ann. Mtg. Assn. Economir Entomologists, Bui. 40. Bur. Ent., p. 75.

MKANS ACIAINST CICADA IN CNDKHC; ROC N I ) LIKK. 145

lizors, wliicli will <ri\c tho j)lanl a inoiv vii^^orous t^rowth, Avill hasten
tho lioaliiiij: process. With younti: tires the worst all'eeted branches
slioiiid he rcMnoved, and tlie hvss injnr(>d oiuvs |)i-()lected IVoiii other
insects while they are liealins^ by coatinjz; the wounded j)arts with
t^raftinij: wax or a nioderatcdy liard soap. Tlu^se protective coverin«z;s
should he r(Mi(^w(Ml at h^ist onc(^ a year, j)rer(M-ahly in the spiini!;, until
the wounds are entirely healcMl over. In the cas(» of a badly injured
trcM^ that has been nu'cMitly ])udded or <2:rafted, it may be well to cut
it l)ack nearly to the ])ud or ^raft, so that an entirely new top may
be ma(l(\

MEANS ACIAINST THE CICADA IN ITS UNDERGROUND LIFE.

While it is probably true, as w^e have already stated, that the Cicada
in its underground life does not work any serious injury to plants on
account of the very insignificant amount of nutriment which it annu-
ally draws from the rootlets, nevertheless in exceptional cases, where
the ground is suspected of being very thickly populated with the larva?
and pupa^ of this insect, it may l)e deemed desirable to undertake their
extermination. This may be accomplished, as suggested, by using the
remedies ordinarily employed against other subterranean insects, such
as the Phylloxera and the apple root-aphis, with this difference, that
the poisons w*ill have to be introduced more deeply into the soil
unless applied in the first or second year after the larvse have begun
their development.

If taken in time, the number of the larvse in the soil may be greatly
reduced by cutting off the branches of the trees wdiich have been
thickly oviposited in, thus preventing the hatching of the eggs. It
will rareh', however, be possible to so completely eliminate the eggs
from the tree as to prevent the entrance of the larva) into the soil in
considerable numbers.

Of the means employed against subterranean insects two are espe-
cially suitable for the destruction of the larvse and pupse of the
Cicada — namely, bisulphid of carbon injected into the ground and
tobacco dust incorporated in the soil.

Tobacco dust has a manurial value and is not at all injurious to
plants. Its value against Cicada larvse is purely theoretical, but there
is little doubt but that if it can be incorporated in the soil some dis-
tance below^ the surface — namely, by first removing 6 inches or more of
the tcrp soil — it will effect the destruction of many of the delicate larvse
and pupse of the cicadas. This dust is a waste product of tobacco
factories and costs about 1 cent per pound, and is worth nearl}^ its cost
as a fertilizer.

Bisulphid of carbon, the popular French remedy for the grape root-
aphis, will undoubtedly prove an efficient means against the Cicada in
31117— No. 71—07 10

14G THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

its underground life. It will be necessary, however, except in the first
year or two of the existence of the larvae, to inject it to a depth of at
least 12 inches below the surface. It should not be introduced into the
soil closer to the crown of young plants than 1 \ feet, and not more tlian
an ounce of the chemical should be introduced into each hole, whicli
should be immediately closed. An injection should be made to about
every sc[uare yard of surface. The bisulphid rapidly evaporates and
penetrates throughout the soil, and is very deadly to insects. It is
liighly inflammable, and should not, therefore, be poured from one
vessel to another near a fire. It may be introduced into the soil by
means of injecting machines. This treatment is not expensive, and
will be valuable for orchards, small groves, or private grounds.

THE PERIODICAL CICADA IN LITERATURE.

As would naturalh" be inferred of an insect as interesting as the
periodical Cicada, the A\Titings which have been devoted to it from
the time of its first coming to the attention of the colonists to the
present have been most voluminous in number and extent; much
of this literature, however, is of a fugitive character and scattered
through publications not now obtainable.

The earliest published account of the periodical Cicada wliich
has come under my o^\m observation was brought to nw attention
by Prof. E. A. Andrews, of the Johns Hopkins Universit}^, Baltimore,
Md. It is contained in Volume I, No. 8, page 137, of the Pliilo-
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, published
Januar}'' 8, 1666, and is reported, unsigned, by the "publisher,"
Henry Oldenburg. The portion of the communication relating to
the Cicada is quoted below:

Some Observations of Swarms of Strange Insects and the Mischiefs Done

BY Them.

A great Observer, who liatli lived long in New England, did, upon occasion, relate
to a Friend of his in London, where he lately was, That some few years since there was
such a Swarm of a certain sort of Insects in that English Colony, that for the space of 200
Miles they poyson'd and destroyed all the Trees of the Country'; there being found
innumerable little holes in the ground, out of which those Insects broke forth in the
form of Maggots, which turned into Fhjcs that had a kind of tail or sting, which they
stuck into the tree, aVid thereby envenomed and killed it. * * *

The rest of the article referred to a plague of locusts (grasshoppers)
in Russia, with which the Cicada is confused. The brood referred to
here is very likely Xo. XIV, which appeared in 1651. Xo other
brood coincides mth this narrative and Xo. XIV not ver}^ closely,
but as the quotation states the relation was ''upon occasion," and
was '^some few ^'-ears since," there is ample warrant for assigning
the account to the brood of fifteen vears before.

THE CTCADA TX T.I IKKAirKK. 147

Prior to ihv discovory of \\\o nboxc record tli(> cnrlicst piihlislicd
account known was tliat rcfc'ri-cd to in Hnllclin 11 (new .scries) of
tho Division of lMiloinoloi2:y. |)ai;-e I I'J, ^ixcn in a work (Mililled
"New Knij^land's M(MnorialL" ky Nathaniel Moreton, printed at
Cand)i*idii:(\ Mass.. in I (id!). 1 was nnal)k' to irel tlic work cited,
but an account se(Mi ky nie was a (|notation from it i)td)li>lied in an
(Mlitorial not(^ to an artick' on tke "I^ocust of Noi'tk Aineiica, " in
Bart*)n's M(Mlical and Physical dournal of kSOl. The kiood referred
to ky Moreton is undonktedly tlic sanu* one refeii-(>(l to akoxc, kut
the occurrence of seventeen years previous, floret on, puklishiiiLC of
an ev(Mit liappenint^: thirty-six years after it occurred, evident 1\
made a mistake of one year, the occui"renc(* not keinij: H)3o, as stated
])y him. ])ut l()o4. "We have records of this krood in New Enjj;land
from 17S7 to 19()(). The records, if any were made of it after 1G51
and ])rior to 1787, have not been discovered."

The quotation from Moreton referred to follows:

Speaking of a sickness ■which, in 1633, carried off many of the whites and Indians,
in and near to Plimouth [Plymouth], in Massachusetts, he says, "It is to be observed,
that the Spring before this Sickness, there was a numerous company of Flics, which,
were like for bigness unto Wasps or Bumble-Bees, they came out of little holes in the
ground, and did eat up the green things, and made such a constant yelling noise as
made all the woods ring of them, and ready to deaf the hearers; they were not any
of them heard or seen by the English in the Country before this time: But the Indians
told th(^m that sickness would follow, and so it did, very hot in the months of June,
July and August of that Summer," viz. 1633. He says, "Toward Winter the sick-
ness ceaj^ed;" and that it was "a kinde of a pestilent Feaver." — New England's
Memoriall, &c., p}). 90 and 91.

The fact noted, namely, that the native Indians associated the recur-
rences of this insect with pestilential diseases, is interesting, as showing
tliat llie Cicada had probably long keen under observation by them
and had exerted a vivid influence on their imaginations.

One of the earliest references on this continent to the ])eriodical
Cicada is recorded in Steadman's Library of American Literatin-(% vol-
ume 1, pages 462-463. It is from the writings of an individual signing
himself ^'T. M.," supposed to have been Thomas Matthews, son of
Sannnd Mattkews, governor of Virginia. It was written in 170"), and
refers to tkree prodigies which are said to have a})])(nir(Ml in that coun-
try akout tk(^ year 1675,^ and which, from the attend uig disastcM's,
w(>re looked upon as ominous presages. One of these was the app(>ai--
ance of a large comet ; another, the flight of enormous fl(;cks of
pigeons; and the last, relating evidently to the periodical Cicada, as
follows:

The third strange appearance was swarms of flies about an inch long and as big as
the tip of a man's little fmger, rising out of spigot holes in the earth, which eat the

oSee Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., v, pp. 126-127, February, 1903.

ft There is no recorded brood which could have appeared in 1675, and the year meant
is probably either 1673 or 1676, both of which were cicada years.

14S THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

ii(^'\v-.<prouted leaves from the tops of the trees without other harm, and in a
month h'ft us."

Tlie next reference to this insect is in a journal, dated 1715, left (
by the Rev. Andreas Sandel, rector of the Swedish congregation at
Philadelphia. It is important as giving the first reference to the use
by the native Indians of the cicadas as an article of diet, and has
been recently published in the Penns^dvania Magazine of History and
Biography. The note is as follows:

May 9 [1715]. — In company with several English clergymen. Mr. Talbot. Ouemey,"^
and Clubb.b I went up to Radnor, where we laid the corner stone of a church.

In this month some singular flies came out of the ground; the English call them
locusts. When they left the ground holes could be seen everywhere in the roads, and
especially in the woods. They were then encased in shells, out of which they crawled.
It seemed most wonderful how being covered with the shell they were able to burrow
their way in the hard ground, ^^^len they began to fl}^ they made a peculiar noise,
and being found in great multitudes all over the country, their noise made the cow
bells inaudible in the woods. They were also destructive, making slits in the bark
of the trees, where they deposited their worms, which withered the branches. Swine
and poultry ate them; but what was more astonishing, when they first appeared
some of the people split them open and ate them, holding them to be of the same
kind as those to have been eaten by John the Baptist. These locusts lasted not
longer than up to June 10, and disappeared in the woods.

Specimens of this insect for scientific study were first carried to the
Old World by Pehr Kalm, a pupil of Linne, who was sent to America
by the Swedish Government and traveled extensively in the colonies
between 1748 and 1751. The account of his travels, published in
Stockholm between 1753 and 1761, contains much interesting informa-
tion relative to the common insects of this country at that early
period, and gives a brief statement of the habits of the periodical
Cicada. ^Yliile this work was being printed, Pehr Kalm published
a more detailed account of the species in the Swedish Transactions
for 1756 (pp. 101-116). The account given in his travels (English
edition, 1771, Vol. II, p. 6), is as follows:

There are a kind of locusts which about every seventeenth year come hither in
incredible numbers. They come out of the ground in the middle of ^fay. an make,
for six weeks together, such a noise in the trees and woods that two persons that meet
in such places, can not understand each other, unless they speak louder than the locusts
can chirp. During that time, they make, with the sting in their tail, holes in the
soft bark of the little branches on the trees, by which means these branches are ruined.
They do no other harm to the trees or other plants. In the interval between the years
when they are so numerous, they are only seen or heard single in the woods.

a See Webster, Insect Life, Vol. II, p. 161.

^ Rev. John Clubb, a "Welshman, for some time was schoolmaster in Philadelphia,
and also assisted Rev. Evan Evans. He also preached to the Welsh settlers at Radnor
and vicinity, and became rector of Holy Trinity Church. Oxford. He died in Decem-
ber of 1715. (The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. XXX,
October, 1906, pp. 448, 449.)

THE CICADA IN LlTKKATtTRK. 11!)

■ Tli(M)rijj:in;il scicnt ilic dcsciipl ion of ihc species 1)\ Liime, ])a--(Ml on
material ('()ll(M't(Mll)y Kalin, followed in 17r)S." l''al)i-ieins alteiw aids
doserihed ihc spcn-ies in twooi' three of liis\\oik> inidei- llienanie
Tettigonia septerulecint, re\i\inii: one of tli(> old i^^eneric names of Aris-
totlo for this class of ins(>cts, hnt Latreille, Lamarck, and snl)se(|uenl
authors retained Linne's name.

In his mono^^raphic work on the Cicadas of the world, 17S(S, Caspar
wStoll i^i\(>s a IlLrni-e and a short description of (^Icada scpfoKhcim .

Sonic^ j)opnlar accounts of the speci(\s closely followed Linne's
description. Indiu- {\\v title, ^'Sonu^ observations on the Cicada of
North AnuMica. " Peter Collinson, esq., of London, En«>;land, <^ave a.
rather full account of the insect as then known, assit^ninj^: fourtcu'ii or
fifteiMi years as its life period, and published a })lat(* illustratinji; the
adult ins(>ct and a twi^i: lacerated by the female.^ Shortly thereafter
appeared an article in Dodsley's Annual Register (17()7, p. 10.')),
entitled, " Observations on Cicada or Locust of North America, which
aj)pears periodically once in sixteen or seventeen years, by Moses
Bartraui, 1766, communicated by the ingenious Peter Collinson."

References to the periodical Cicada in American literature began
to be more abundant toward the end of the eighteenth century and
in the beginning of the nineteenth, Thomas Say, in 1817, referring
to '^ numerous accounts of it in our public prints." Most of these,
however, were unimportant notices and are now lost or not easily
accessible.

The most interesting contribution to the American literature of the
Cicada of this period, comprising two papers with valuable editorial
notes, is contained in the Barton Medical and Physical Journal of 1804,
already cited. The first title reads: '^Some particulars concerning
the locust of North America. Written at Nazareth, in Pennsylvania,
Aug. 27th, 1793. Communicated to the Editor, by the Reverend
Mr. Charles Reichel, of Nazareth." The paper gives a number of
dates of occurrence in Pennsylvania and some interesting notes on
the habits of the Cicada — some errors in which are corrected in a note
by the editor, who announces that he has '^for several years, devoted
a great deal of attention to the natural history of tliis insect" and
''designs to publish an extensive memoir on the subject," which,
liowever, he seems never to have done.

The second paper (pp. 56-59) reads: "Additional Observations on
the Cicada Septendecim. By the late Mr. John Bartram. From a
MvS. in the possession of the Editor." The older pa])er indicatcnl in
this title I have not seen, but it is evidently included in an account
of travels by Bartram in Pennsylvania and Canada, printed in Lon-
don in 1751. Under the title quoted are notes on the appearance

"Systema Naturir. tenth edition, 1758, p. 435.
6 Philos. Trans. 17G4, vol. 54. pp. 05-69.

150 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

of a brood in the neicrli])()rli()()(l of Pliiladelphia in 1749. wliich l)egan
to emercre May 10, but "in the latter end of April * * * came
so near the surface of the o^round, that the hogs rooted up the ground
for a foot deep, all about the htdges and fences, under trees in search
of them." There follow quite accurate notes on o\4position. The
editor concludes the article by the citation from Moreton wliich has
been already (pioted.

Thomas Say, the father of American entomology, has one brief
conununication on the periodical Cicada, in which he criticises the
use of the name 'Mocust," and gives references to earlier literature
and a brief note on habits."

Another interesting communication of about the same period is by
Dr. J. F. Davis,^ in which the author controverts the " 14 or 15" year
period suggested by Collinson and quotes two letters, one from the
Hon. Judge Peters, of Belmont, Pa., and the other from flyers Fisher,
esq., of Philadelphia, to substantiate the 17-year period. Referring
to the noise of this Cicada, Judge Peters says:

One of your Spa-fields meetings can give you a faint idea of their incessant and
unmusical cheering and noise. If Hogarth had known these locusts, he would have
placed them about the ears of his enraged musician. Knife-gi'indei's, ballad singers,
etc., would have been lost in their din.

Mr. Fisher gives a very accurate, though brief, statement of the
Hfe cycle of the species (if his belief that they occur at great depths be
excepted), and adds the very significant statement that ''there is
reason to believe that they appear every year in some part or other
of the United States, with the complete period of 17 3^ears between
every local appearance."

Dr. S. P. Hildreth, of Marietta, Ohio, made two ver}' valuable con-
tributions on the Cicada to the American Journal of Science and Ai'ts
(1826 and 1830), which are much more accurate than any of the earlier
papers and too long to be quoted in tliis place. In the second of
these papers he calls attention to the existence of the small form of
Cicada, and gives a colored plate representing five views of the adult
insect. Doctor Plildreth published a third paper also in 1847.*'

The fu'st account of this insect to be issued as a separate work is the
memoir of Prof. Nathaniel Potter, of Baltimore, Md., entitled "Notes
on the Locusts," etc., written in 1834 and privately published in 1839.
This pamphlet of twenty-nine pages and one colored plate, represent-
ing the insect in both sexes and also the early stages, together with
the nature of its work on twigs, and anatomical details, was the cliief
source of information for the accoimt published by Harris in his
''Insects Injurious to Vegetation," and while containing some wrong

a Mem. Phila. Soc. Prom. Agric, 1818, v. 4, p. 225.

6 Jour. Sci. and Arts Roy. Inst., 1819, v. G, pp. 372-374.

c Loc. cit., ser. 2, vol. 3, pp. 216-218.

TIIK CICADA IN MTKRATrUK. 151

inferences, trivos \\ ith I'cinai-kahle accuracv and dctnil obsci-xnt ions on
practically all of the features of tlu^ ins(>ct's life history and hahits
Avliich are open to easy study, not onlv in its uiuhM-i.n-ound existence
hut thr()u*::h()ut its transformation and a(M-ial \\l\\ Pi-oh'.ssoi- Poltei-
was evidently fully aware, not only of the two distinct si/es or \ ariet ics
of the Cicada hut also of the depth to wliich the larva^ ])enetrate and
the fact of their forniin<j: roofs or turrets over their hurrows some t imc^
before the })eriod of their emergence — a record wliich lias Ix (>n hit heit o
overlooked and the credit for this discovery assiojned to a nnich hi lei-
period.

In speaking thus most favorably of ProiVssor Potter's memoir it
must not be forgotten that probably nuich of the actual observation
and study upon which it is based are due to the researcli of Dr. Gideon
B. Smith, of Baltimore, Md., who is given full credit in one of the
introductory paragraphs, in these words:

As (tur ]-)rofossional avocations would not permit us to devote our whole time to the
pursuit, it became necessary to call in the aid of a colleague whose knowledge of ento-
mology and industry could be relied upon. These qualifications were found and well
exemplified in Mr. Gideon B. Smith. Should our labors reflect any light on so obscure
a subject, the credit is equally due to him.

These two men were the first to make a careful and at all complete
study of the periodical Cicada, Professor Potter's interest in the sub-
ject dating, he says, from 1783, and great credit is due them, and
es])ecially to Doctor Smith, whose later work will be subsequently
considered.

Several brief accounts of the Cicada appeared in American and for-
eign publications about this time, adding nothing, however, to the
facts already obtained, the most notable perhaps being the account by
J. O. Westwood in his '' Classification of Insects," " in which he refers
to the literature and ha])its of the species veiy briefly.

The next step of real importance was the discovery of a 13-year
southern brood by Dr. D. L. Phares, of Woodville, Miss., and the
publication of the fact in 1845 in the Woodville Republican.

Both before and after this time Doctor Phires was in communica-
tion with Dr. Gideon B. Smith, referred to above, whom he evidently
ultimately convinced of the truth of the 13-year period for the south-
ern broods.

Doctor Smith continued for many years the work which he had
begun as the colleague of Professor Potter, keeping his not(^s in the
form of a rather voluminous manuscript, which was flrst prepared,
he states, in 1834, tlH> date signed to Professor Potter's memoir.
Doctor Smith twice entircdy rewrote and revised his manuscript, the
title-page of the last cop}- reading as follows:

The American Locust Cicada septendedm, et Iredeciin. Ivinbracing the natural
history and habits of the insect in lis yx-rfect state and while underground, with

" 1839-40, VmI. II. p. 426.

152 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

drawings of its several organs and the perfect insects, the egg and the young taken
from life, with a register of the places and time of its appearance in every part (»f the
United States, by Gideon B. Smith, M. D. Originally written in 1834, transcribed
with additions 1851, and rewritten with additions and illustrations in February, 1857,
in the sixty-fourth year of my age. — G. B. S.

This manuscript is substantially the paper by Professor Potter
revised, with much interesting matter added and particularly a regis-
ter of some 21 broods in many colonies, in which are separated the
two tribes, one of seventeen years, represented by fourteen broods
and the other thirteen 3^ears, represented b}^ seven broods. Doctor
Smith's classification of the broods under these two tribes undoubt-
edly resulted from his correspondence with Doctor Pharos and perhaps
other observers residing in the South. Most unfortunately, Doctor
Smith failed to publish this ver}^ interesting manuscript and there-
fore never received due credit for the valuable Avork which lie
accomplished.

Townend Glover used this manuscript to some extent in his article
on the Cicada in the Report of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for
1867 (1868), referring to Doctor Smith as ha^dng devoted much tune
to studying the habits of the Cicada, and as the best authorit}^ on the
subject in the Middle States, and particularh^ as holding that there
are two tribes '' differing only from each other in the period of their
lives, the northern being seventeen years, and the other, or southern
tribe, requiring onh^ thirteen years in which they perform their trans-
formations." The use of Doctor Smith's manuscript afterwards by
Professor Riley, as will be subsequent!}^ noted, was not of such char-
acter as to bring into prominence the real value of Doctor Smith's
contribution to science. Two minor notes only were published b}^
Doctor Smith. The first is his Scientific American note of March 22,
1851, which was afterwards communicated by Mr. Spence to the
London Entomological Society. ° In this note Doctoi Smith briefly
reviews and sums up the results of his seventeen j^ears' stud}^ of this
insect, and states that he has located thirty different locust districts,
occup}dng fourteen of the seventeen years. Since he does not men-
tion the 1 3-year race he was evidently unaw^are of its existence as late
as 1851. The second is a brief note in the Country Gentleman for
May, 1869, in which he mentions both races.

From this time on until the important publications b}^ Walsh and
Rile}^ a number of articles on the Cicada appeared, some of them of
considerable interest and value, and notably those by Miss ^lagaretta
H. Morris, of GermantoAvn, Pa., on the habits, times of appearance,
and ravages occasioned by this insect, and by Prof. Joseph Leidy on
the fungous disease attacking the species.^ Dr. J. C. Fisher, in 1851,

aProc. Ent. Soc. London, April 7, 1851, Vol. I, pp. 80, 81.

^Described by C. IT. Peck as Massospora cicadina in 31st Kept. X. Y. State Mus.
Nat. Hist., 1879^ pp. 19, 20, and 44.

THK riCADA TN UTKRATIKK. 153

des('ri])ed as a distiiU't sjXM-ics Cicada cassinii^ tl;{> small foi'in rclViicd
to by several of the earlier authors, and (o this paper were a|)|)('ii(l('(l
comparative notes on the habits of tin* (wo forms l)y John Cassin.'*
About this time, 1851-52, also appeared the vciy complete account
by Doetor Harris in his "Inseets of New l^^.n<!;lan(l,'' and also some
anatomical studies of the sexual system and musical apj)aralus ])y
Dr. W. I. Burnett. In 1S5() Dr. Asa Fitch, in his (iist i(>port on the
inseets of New York, ojives an extendcul account of the periodical
Cicada, classifying or listing some nine broods, but not addinjj: otliei-
wise particularly to the knowledge of the insect. Several accounts
of the species followed, including the notice of a 13-year brood,. which
Doctor Phares claims to have published in the Republican of Wood-
ville, Miss., May 5, 185S, under the title " Cicada tredecim^' — the earliest
published suggestion of this name for the 13-year race. None of the
other comnumications, including papers and notices by Fitch, Walsh,
Glover, and Cook, is of great importance, if w^e except the reference
b}' Glover to Smith already noted.

The next step of real importance was the publication by Walsh and
Riley in the first volume of the American Entomologist of a very full
and illustrated editorial account, in which the 13-3^ear species is char-
acterized and the 1 3-year period for the southern broods is fully estab-
lished and a register of some sixteen broods is given. Professor Riley
in his First Missouri Report reproduces this article with the additions
to the broods derived chiefly from the manuscript memoir by Doctor
Smith, which had been in the meantime communicated to him by Dr.
J. G. Morris, of Baltimore, Md. In this paper Professor Riley revised
and renumbered the broods, increasing their number to twenty- two.
Professor Riley's classification of the broods, and the detads of the
life history and habits of the insect, as given by Walsh and Riley in
the American Entomologist, and later by Riley in his report, have
been accepted as the chief source of information since.

From the date of these articles until 1885 the additions to the liter-
ature are chiefly of records bearing on the distribution of the broods,
furnished notably by Rathvon, McCutcheon, Riley, Le Baron, Glover,
Phares, Packard, Lintner, and many others.

The recurrence in 1885 of the great Brood X of the 17-year race,
in conjunction with the very important 13-year Brood XXIII, gave
again a great stimulus to the study of this insect. Professor Riley
published in June, 1885, as Bulletin No. 8 (old series) of the Division
of Entomology, an account of both races witli a very fidl chronology
of all the known broods. These data were repeated in part, witli
important additions, in the Report of the Department for that year,
published in 1886. Other general articles were published by Doctor

"Proc. Acad. Xat. Sci, Phila. 1S5I, Yd. V. pp. 27:i-275.

154 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Lintner and many others. The output of hterature on the peri-
odical Cicada since 1885, if one takes the daily press notices and
articles into account, has been enormous and particularly in the
special Cicada years. This has resulted from the fact that as the
dates for the appearances of all the broods are now well understood,
the recurrences have been foretold and looked forward to, thus vastly
increasing the popular interest. The new information gained has
related chiefly to facts of distribution. Some interesting data have
been given, however, on the subject of the peculiar huts or turrets,
which are sometimes constructed by the emerging pupse, and some
anatomical studies have been made.

For a description of these and other papers the reader is referred to
the bibliography of the writings on the periodical Cicada Avhich is
appended. The important papers from the earliest times to the
present are listed, omitting much of the ephemeral and less valuable
matter which added little or nothmg to the knowledge of the liabits
and distribution of the species.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

[Chronologically arranged.]

1666. [Oldenburg, Henry, "publisher"]. — " Some observations of Swarms of Strange
Insects and the Mischiefs done by them." <Philos. Trans. London, Vol. I.
No. 8, p. 137.
Includes first reference to periodical Cicada (Brood XIV).

1669. MoRETON, Nathaniel. — "New England's Memoriall." <Cambridge, 1669.

Refers to a " kinde of pestilent feaver " fatal to whites and Indians in season of lfi33 (1634?)
ascribed by the Indians to the "flies," whicli appeared that year and which are briefly
described.

1705. Matthews, Thomas (?).— Steadman's Lib. Am. Lit., Vol. I. pp. 462, 463 (1887).
Quotes the writings of 1705 of "T. M.," supposed to refer to Thomas Matthews, describing
tlie occurrence of a swarm of cicadas as one of three prodigies appearing about 1675. (See
pp. 147-148.)

1715. Sandel, Andreas. — Mitchell andMiller's Medical Repository, Vol. IV. \^. 7L
(Abstract.) (Memorandum dated 1715.) (See 1906.)
Refers to the use of the cicadas as food by the Indians.

1756. Kalm, Pehr. — Beskrifning pa et slagts Gras-Hoppor, uti Norra Americas ( Cicada
septendedm). <Vetensk. Acad. Handl. 17, pp. 101-116 — German Transla-
tion 1767, t. 26, pp. 130-143.

1753-61. Kalm, Pehr. — Travels in North America. Vol. II, p. 6.

Gives a brief account of the species, which Is said to come about every 17tlt year.

1758. LiNNE, C— Systema Naturae, 10th Edit., p. 436.
Original description of the species.

1764. Collinson, Peter. — Some observations on the Cicada of North Anu-rica.

<Philos. Trans. Lond., vol. 54, pp. 65-69, 1 pi.

1767. Bartram, Moses. — "Dodsley's Annual Register/' p. 103.

Account in letter to Peter Collinson, London, England.

1775. Fabricius, J. C— Syst. Ent., p. 679, No. 6; Ins., II, 1781, p. 319, No. 6; Mant.
Ins., II, 1787, p. 266, No. 9.
Described as Tettigonia septendedm.

1788. Stoll, Caspar.— "Der Cicaden," etc.

Gives a figure and short description of Cicada Kcptemlccim.

KIliLKHJKAPHY. I;).)

1804. Rkiciiel, Rov. Charles.— Sonic i)ar(iculars concorning the locust of Ndiih

America. - Barton Med. and Phys. Journal. Vol. I, ]>. 52, IT.
1804. Baktk.vm. .louN. Additional observations on Cicddti septetulcrim. l''riiiii ;i MS.

in till' i)ossession of the editor. Barton Med. and Phys. .I.iuni.. \.il. 1, |.|..

50-59. (Earlier paper pn.l). 1751, Mi.^d. in Travels in Pa. and ('an. l...n<l.,

Sept., 1751.)
1818. Say, T.— Mem. riiilad. Soe. Prom. A.-jrie., vol. I, p. 225.
Uofors to «';nli(>r littMjiturc and givos l)riof note (ui habits.

JSli). 1)a\is, ,1. I'\ On the (^irada scplctKlecivi. <^J()urn. Sci. and Arts liny. In.-i.,
vol. 0, ])p. 372-;>74.

Criticisps paper of Coilinson; (nioti's lottcrs l)y Hon. .ludgc Peters imd .Myers Fi.slier to
substantiate the 17-year period.

1820. Ilii.DHETii, S. P. — Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol. 10, ])p. :>27-:52!).
Habits and appoarances detailed with consideral)le accuracy.

1828. llii.DKETH, S. P. — Ueber die anioricanische Cicada (CiVad'a ivyVrm/rr////). I*'ror.

Not., Bd. 22, No. 426, pp. 33-35.
1828. Booth, Jesse. — Uc4)er die Cicada sept cndenm. <Fr()r. Xol., Bd. 22, Xo. KiS,

pp. 84-87.
LS30. IIiLDRETH, S. P. — Notices and observations on the American Cicada or jocu.si.

<Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts, vol. 18, pp. 47-50.
Characters, habits, and appearances; refers also to existence of small forms.

1832. HiLDRETH, S. p.— Ueber Cicada septendccim. <rlsis, 1832, pp. 1051), lOfiO.

1837. Children, J. G. — Proc. Ent. Soc. London, vol. 1, p. xxx.

Exhibited specimens of the different stages and read extract from a letter from Doctor
Harlan, of Philadelphia, giving a brief statement on habits, 17-year brood, etc.

1839. Potter, Nathaniel. — Notes on the Locnsta septentrionalis amerumuv decini
septima. <Baltimore, J. Robinson, 27 pp., 1 pi.
History, habits, descriptions, and figures of Cicada septendecim.

1839-40. Westwood, J. 0. — Classification of insects, II, p. 4.
Brief account of species and reference to the literature.

1843. Morton, S. G., and others. — Cicada septendedm, discussion and extracts from
minutes in reference to. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., Vol. I, pp. 277-280,
June.

Notes on various broods of periodical Cicada.

1845. Phares, Dr. D. L. — Woodville, Miss., Republican, May 17.

Published fact of a L3-year brood in Mississippi.

184G. Forsley, C. G. — On the Cicada septendecim in 1835 in Louisiana. <Proc. Bost.
Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 2, p. 162.
Gives habits and distribution.

1846. Morris, M. H.— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 3, pp. 132-134.

Ravages, habits, and the times of appearance at various places.

1847. Morris, M. H. — Apple and pear trees destroyed by the locust. ''Am. Aijric.,

March, vol. 6, pp. 86, 87.
Ravages, habits, and transformations.

1847. HiLDRETH, S. p. — Cicada septendedm in 1846. -^ Am. .loiirn. Sci. and Arts,
March, ser. 2, vol. 3, pp. 216-218, 1-2; Ann. and Ma^^. Nat. llisi.. \u]. 20, pp.
136-138.
Habit.s in Ohio.

1847. Morris, M. II.— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 3, j)]). 1!K), ii)l.
Ravages of the larvae; enemies.

1847. HiLDRETH, S. P. — Die Siebzehnjahrdocnst ( Cimdn sfjifrvdrnrn). "Fror. Not.,

Bd. 3, No. 60, pp. 241-245.

1848. HiLDRETH, S. P. — Detail sur les moeurs de la Cicada septendecim. Clnstitut,

XVI, No. 744, pp. 107, 108.

156 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

1848. Morris, M. H. — Destruction of fruit trees by the seventeen-year locust. <Am.
Agric, Septeml)er, vol. 7, p. 279.
Notes on injuries to forest and fruit trees by the larvae.

1851. Smith, Dr. Gideon B. — On the American \ocust {Cicada septendecim) . <Scientific
American, March 22; presented by Spence in Proc. Lond. Ent. Soc. (n. s.),
Vol. I, 1851, pp. 80, 81.

Reviews his work; states that he has located thirty locust districts, occupying fourteen of
the seventeen years; 13-year race not mentioned.

1851. Spence, R. H.— Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond. (n. s.). Vol. I, pp. 103. 104.
Letter on the Cicada in Maryland in 1851.-

1851. Leidy, J.— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. V, p. 235.
Characters of the spores of a fungus affecting the Cicada.

1851. Fisher, Dr. J. C— Proc. Acad. Xat. Sci. Phila., Vol. V, pp. 272, 273.

Description of Cicada cassinii as a new species hitherto confounded with C. septendecim.

1851. Cassin, John. — Notes on the above species of Cicada (C. cassinii), and on the
Cicada septendecim Linn. <Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., September, Vol. V,
pp. 273-275.
Characters and habits of Cicada se-ptendecim and of Cicada cassinii compared.

1851. Burnett, Dr. W. J.— Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., IV, p. 71 and p. 111.
Sexual system and musical apparatus; appearance in cleared lands.

1851. Burnett, Dr. W. J. — Points in the economy of the 17-year locust {Cicada septen-

decim) bearing on the plural origin and special local creation of the species.
<Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., 6th Meet., pp. 307-311.

1852. Wild, Ph. — Sur les moeurs de la Cicada septendecim. <Ann. Soc. Ent. France,

2d Ser. vol. 10., Bui., pp. XVIII, XIX. .
1852. Harris, T. W.— Insects of New England, pp. 180-189; Ins. Inj. to Veget., 1860,
pp. 206-217; do. Flint Edit., 1863, pp. 206-219.
General account of the species.

1852. Evans, Gurdon. — Insects injurious to vegetation. <Trans. N. Y. State Agric.
Soc. for 1851, vol. 11, pp. 741-751.
Notes concerning various insects of Madison County, N. Y., including the 17-year Cicada.

1854. Fitch, A. — Report (on the noxious, beneficial, and other insects of the State of
New York). <Trans. N. Y. State Agric. Soc. for 1854, vol. 14, pp. 742-753;
1st and 2d Repts., Albany, 1856, pp. 38-49.
Gives a general account of the species and enumerates nine broods.

1857. Smith, Dr. Gideon B. — The American locust, etc. < Last revision. February.

Unpublished manuscript used in part by Glover and Riley.

1858. Phares, Dr. D. L. — Republican, Woodville, Miss., May 5.

Published a notice of the 13-year brood under the title " Cicada iredecim."

1859. Smith, Dr. G. B.— Country Gentleman. May 12, vol. 13, p. 308.

"Predicts the appearance of locusts the coming spring in Virginia, Maryland, North Caro-
lina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Mississippi. They belong to the tribe of thirteen and seventeen
year locusts." (13-year Brood XXIII and 17-year Brood I.)

1860. Fitch, A.— The Entomologist, No. 22— The 17-year Cicada. <The Country

Gentleman, March 29, vol. 15, p. 210.

Remarks on popular names for insects; regularity of appearance of Cicada septendecim:
necessity of ascertaining its distribution in order to predict its future visitations.

1861". StAl, C— Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 4th ser.. Vol. I, Septor:l)er, p. 618.

Reference of Cicada septendecim to genus Tibicen Latr.
1862. IIerrick, E. C. — Uprising of the 17-year Cicada in New Haven County, Conn.,

in 1860. <Am. Joum. Arts and Sci., 2d ser., vol. 33, pp. 433, 434.
1865. Riley, C. V. — Seventeen-year locust. <Prairie Farmer, August 19, vol. 32
(n. s., vol. 16), p. 127.

Agrees with S. P. G. in doubting that Cicada septendecim lives seventeen years immature,
and gives reasons for his doubt.

I

HIHLlOORAniY. 157

|.sH-">. Wai.sii, H. I). -Pract. Kiit., Dcccinhcr 25, Vol. 1, pp. IS, 19.

Answor to inquiry of M. S. Hill; ('icada districts of th(> I'nitod Stati-s, as ^'iviMi l.\ litcli in
Now York Report, T. p. .<•»; habits.

18()(). Kii.KV, ('. V. — Prairie Fanner, Scplcinhcr I, vol. ;i 1 (ii. s., vol. ISi. ]>. ]:U\.

.Viiswor to inquiry of ,1. I). Swain; (■oii(lt'iis('<i account i>f (iauln ((nKci/Zf/r/.v; coniiiarisnn
with Cicada scptemircim.

1S()(;. Walsh. 1^ D.— Pnict. Ent., Dofoiuhcr, vol. 2, p. 3:i.

Answer to inquiry of M. S. llill; Cicada srplnulrcim coinparcil witli an undcscrilicl spciics.

lS(i7. Lkidv. Dr. Joseph.— Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 93.
Mentions recent appeal rancc in various coiniti(>s in \'ir}j;inia.

ISO?. (iLovEU, T.— Rei)t. (U. S.) Comiu. Agric. for lS(i(i, p. 29.
Brief notes, with dates of appearance.

lS(i7. Walsh, B. D.^Pracl. Ent., February, vol. 2, ]>. 50.
Answer to inquiry of M. S. Hill; variations in the imago.

18()S. Walsh, B. D.— The 17-yeur locust. <Dixie Farmer, .Tnne 11.
IVriodicity and local distribution of the various broods.

1808. RiTHERFORD, H. — Ncw Yofk Semi-Weekly Tribune, June 27.

Records the appearance of Brood X in Rutland County, Vt ., in is.")i and 1808, and also of
Brood XIV on Long Island in 1855.

18()8. lln.EY, C. v.— The 17-year Cicada. <Prairie Farmer, July 4, vol. 38 (n. s.,
vol. 22), p. 2.
Dates and localities of occurrences.

18G8. RiLEY, C. v.— Prairie Farmer, July 11, vol. 38 (n. s., vol. 22), p. 10.
Occurrence in Michigan.

1808. Glover, T.— Rept. (U. S.) Comm. Agric. for 1867, pp. 67-71, figs. (Published
after July.)

General account of the species, quoting Harris and Smith, and referring to the hitter's
Li-year broods.

1868. Walsh, B, D. — Study of periodical Cicada. <Am. Ent., Vol. T, ])p. 7, 8.
September.

Records unsuccessful experiments to get the Cicada to sting the (iesh, and urges that the
stings are probal)ly ])y Stizus grandis.a

1868. Walsh, B. D., and C. V. Riley.— The sting of the 17-year Cicada. <Ain. Enl .,
October, Vol. I, pp. 36, 37.

Communications from F. W. Collins, R. Richardson, and B. Borden on llie repulecl sting
of the Cicada and on the habits of Stizu.s grandis. a

1868. Walsh, B. D., and C. V. Riley.— The periodical Cicada. ^^Am. Ent.,
December, Vol. I, pp. 63-72, figs. 58-64. Extract: Op. cit., June, 1869, Vol.
I, p. 202.

Characteri7,ation of the 13-year broods of Cicada as a new species. Cicada tredecim; dimor-
l)hism of the same and of Cicada sepfendecim; seasons, natural history, trHnsforniations,
enemies, sting, and injuries of these species; chronological history of their several known
broods; figures the several stages of Cicada septendecim, the. towers made by the pupa\ and
twigs with eggs.

1868. Cook, A. J. — Remarks cm some insects injurious to vegetation in MifliiuMii.
<7th Annual Rept. Seer. State Board Agriculture Michigan for b^(iS, pp.
163-170.
Habits and means against Cicada seplendecim.

1868. Riley, C. V.— Entomology. <Prairie Farmer Annual (No. 2 for 1869), pp. 30-

41, 6 figs.

Includes an account of the periodical Cicada, with figures.

1869. Warder, R. H. — Notes on the periodical Cicada. It does oviposit in ever-

greens. <Am. Ent., February, Vol. I, p. 117.

Oviposition of Cicada septendecim in three evergreens; note on the ftnigus found in tlie
ahdomen of the Cicada: injuries to yotmg orchards.

a Synonym ot Sphecius speciosus.

158 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

1809. Walsh, B. D., and C V. Riley.— Am. Kiit.. February, Vol. I. p. 117.
Comments on the above.

1869. Riley, C. V.— The periodical Cicada. <lst Rept. Ins. Mo., March, pp. 18-42.
General account following Walsh-Riley article in American Entomologist and incorporating
facts on distribution of broods from Doctor Smith's manuscript, renumbering the broods
and increasing them to twenty-two.

1869. Rathvox, S. S. — Hatching of the 17-year Cicada. <Am. Xat., April, vol.

3, p. 106.
1869, Walsh, B. D., and C. V. Riley. — Out of evil there cometh good. <Am.

Ent., June, Vol. I, p. 202.
Probable abundance of the fruit crop in southern Illinois and in Missouri in 1869 due to the

pruning of the trees by Cicada septendecim in 1868.

1869. Walsh, B. D., and C. V. Riley. — The periodical Cicada. <Ain. Ent.,
June, Vol. I, p. 202.
Request for records of appearance in 1869.

1869. Walsh, B. D., and C. V. Riley. — Belated individuals of the periodical Cicada.
<Am. Ent., July, Vol. I, p. 217.
Occurrence of scattering individuals in years before or after their regular period.

1869, Walsh, B. D., and C. V. Riley. — Eggs of periodical Cicada in savin-twig.
<Am. Ent., July, Vol. I, p. 228.

Answer to inquiry of J. A. Greason; Cicada septendecim ovipositing in twigs of Juniperus
sabina.

1869. Walsh, B. D., and C. V. Riley'. — The periodical Cicada; oui* fii'st brood
established. <Ain. Ent., August, Vol. I, p. 244.
Appearance in Connecticut of a brood in 1869.

1869. Walsh, B. D., and C. V. Riley. — Insects named. <Am. Ent., Augtist, Vol. I,
p. 251.

Answer to inquiry of D. L. Phares; irregular appearance of Cicada tred^cim ( Tibicen
septendecim).

1869. Rathvox, S. S. — Cicada notes. <Am. Ent., Xoveinber, vol. 2, j). 51.

Gives habits and appearance.

1870. Riley, C. V. — The periodical Cicada alias the 17-year and 13-year locust. <<^\jn.

Ent. and Bot., May, p. 211.

Quotes from the 1st Ann. Rept. State Ent. Mo., the localities in which Cicada septendecim,
and Cicada tredecim wiU appear in 1870, with requests for reports of the occurrence of these
insects.

1870. Kite, Wm. — The 17-year Cicada. <Ain. Nat., vol. 3, p. 106.

1870. MoKRis, John G. — Seventeen-year locust two years too late. <.\jn. Ent. and

Bot., September, vol. 2, p. 304.
Occurrence of a retarded Cicada septendecim in Maryland in 1870; note on the year of the

appearance of the Cicada in York County, Pa.

1870. Walsh, B. D. — Am. Ent., October, p. 335. (Posthumc is paper.)

Argues for the specific distinctness of 17 and 13 year races as illustrative of a general problem
in article "On the Grape Eurj^tomides," etc.

1870. R.VTiivox, S. S. — Periodical Cicada not in Kreutz Creek Valley. <;.\jn. Ent.

and Bot., December, vol. 2, p. 372.
Notes peculiarities in local distribution.

J.870. McCuTCHEN, A. R. — Periodical cicadas in Georgia. <^Vin. Ent. and Bot.,
December, vol. 2, p. 372.
Occurrence in Georgia in 1866, 1869, and 1870.

1871. Le B arox, W. — Locust or periodical Cicada. <Prairie Farmer, April 29, vol. 42.

Natural history.

1871. Le Baron, W. — Prairie Farmer, June 3, vol. 42.

Occurrence of lar^iTi of Cicada septendecim in southera Illinois.

HllJl.lOiJKAIMIY. I,")!)

1872. KiLKY, ( . v.— Fourih Kcpi. his. Mo.. April, pp. aO-:'.l.

Givos the data colleettMl on (lit- six l>roo(ls which had appcartMl simr ih.- pulilicit ion of
article in first report.

1S7L'. DiMMoiK. (i."ln.^i'(ts iiilc'.-lini,' apple Ircc,^. No. I. New i:ii<,dan<l lloiuc-

sii'acl, Juno 1, vol. 5, No. 4, j). '2b.
I'rcats of Cicada sepleiidccim, etc.

1S7L'. Di.MMocK. (r. — Insoc-ts iiilVsting aj)i)lo 1r(vs. No. 1. <N('\v iMiL'land IIoiim--
sicad, .liuic 22, vol. 5, No. 7, p. 4!>.
i'lcats of Cuada (= Tibiccn) scptcndccim, etc.

1S72. llowAiu), .1. W. — Phillips' SoiUhorn Farmer, Oclohcr.

Uci)orts tilt' occurrence of the Cicada at. Flat Hayoii. La., in l,s72.

1S72. I,K H.\iu)N, W.— Second Ropt. Ins. Ills., i)p. 12t-i:};i.
Cfcncral account from Harris, Fitch, and Riley.

lS7;i. Huowx, J. J. — Coleman's Rural World, January 1.

Kccords the appciiranco. of the Cicada in northwestern Arkansas alonj,' the While Uiver
and its tributaries; traces them back in 13-year jjcriods to 1S():5.

1S7;>. (Jlover, T. — Report of the entomologist and curator of I he luuscuin. Kept.

(U. S.) Comm. Agric. for 1872, pp. 112-138, 2G figs.
Appearance and ravages of Cicada septendecim.

1S7:5. Phares. Dr. D. L. — Southern Field and Factory, Jac;kson, Miss., April.
Refers to his previous publications in the Republican on the 13-year broods.

lS7:i. Phares, Dr. D. L. — Southern Field and Factory, Jackson, Miss., August.
Records of Brood XXII since ISOG; its extent in Louisiana and Mississippi.

1873. Packard. A. S. — Third annual report of the injurious and beneficial effects of

insects in Massachusetts. 20th Ann. Rept. Sec. Mass. Bd. Agric, pp. 10-20,
figs. 142, 143.
Includes general account of periodical Cicada.

1873. Packard, A. S.— Am. Naturalist, vol. 7, p. 536, September.
Reprint with corrections of article in Third Annual Report.

1S75. Hethune, C. J. S. — Grasshoppers or locusts. - Ann. Kept. Ent. Soc Ont. for
1874, p. 29, fig. 30.
In article on grasshopper ravages, etc.; discusses confusion in use of name Locusi.

187(i. Riley, C. V.— Periodical Cicada, "17-year locust. " <New York Semi-Weekly
Tribune, June 23, 3 figs.

Occurrence at Lexington, Va., in 1876; list of localities at which these insects will appear
this j'ear; chronological history of a brood; figures of larva, pup*, and imago.

1877. Riley, C. V. — Entomological notes. <'Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, December,
vol. 3. pp. 217, 218; see Am. Nat., October, 1876, vol. 10, p. 635.

Includes correction of vernacular name of Cicada septendecim; occurrence of the same in
Virginia in 1876; yearly development.

1877. Leidv. Jos. — Remarks on the 17-year locust, etc. -^Proc .\cad. Nal. Sci.
Phila.. pp. 260, 261.

1877. RiLEV.C. V. — The periodical Cicada. <Western Farmer's Almanac lor IS7S. p.

48; Colman's Rural World, Noveml)er 28, 1877.
Popular description and natural history; chronology of twenty-two dilTerent broods.

1878. OsBORX, H. — The 17-year locusi. Western Farm Journal. .Inly.

General account of natural history.

1878. Bessey, C. E. — Iowa Weather Bulletin, November.

Gives an account of the distribution of the Cicada in Iowa, illustrated by a State map.

1879. OsBORN, H. — Report of noxious insects. -^Trans. Iowa State Hortic. Soc. for

1878, vol. 13, pp. 368-402.
Includes habits and natural history of Cicada srptcndcriin.

1870. Peck, C. H.— Thirty-first Rept. N. Y. State Mns. Nat. Hist., pp. \U. 20, and 44.
Description of Cicada fungous parasites as Massospora cicadina.

160 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

187!). Streckek, Hermann. — The Cicada in Texas. <Science Xews. Vol. I, No. 16,

p. 25G.
1871). Riley, C. V.— New York Tribune, 1879; Colman's Rural World, June 25.

Boundaries of the areas in which Cicada septendecim is expected to occur in 1879; request

for information of its appearance.

1879. OsBORN, H. — Seventeen-year locusts. <College Quarterly, September, vol. 2,

p. 58.
Occurrence in southwestern Iowa in 1879.

1880. RiLEY, C. v.— The 17-year Cicada in Iowa. "Am. Ent.. February^ vol. 3 (n. s..

Vol. I), pp. 25, 26.

Review of the above; limits of the broods of 1854-1871, 1861-1878, and 1802-1879 in Iowa;
occurrence of the last brood in Missouri; comparison of the distribution of these broods with
the distribution of timber trees.

1880. Bessey, C. E. — On the distribution of the 17-year Cicada of the brood of 1878,
or Riley's Brood XIII. in Iowa. ^Am. Ent.. February, vol. 3 (n. s.. Vol. I),
pp. 27-30, fig. 7.
Summary of replies to inquiries concerning distribution in Iowa in 1878, with map.

1880. Chambers, V. T.— Am. Ent., Vol. Ill, p. 77, March.

Occurrence in Cheyenne Canyon, Colorado, in 1876. (Probably erroneous.)

1880. Riley, C. V.— Fungus in Cicada. <Am. Ent., June, vol. 3 (n. s., Vol. I), p. 14.
1880. Riley, C. V.— The periodical Cicada. <Am. Ent., July, vol. 3 (n. s., Vcl. I),
pp. 172, 173, fig. 76.
Broods which appear in 1880.

1880. Robinson, F. C. — Seventeen-year Cicada in Pennsylvania. <Am. Ent.. July,
vol. 3 (n. s.. Vol. I), p. 178. '
Occurrence at Uniuntown, Pa., in 1880.

1880. Barnes, PIarley. — Periodical Cicada in Geauga County. Ohio. <Am. Ent.,
September, vol. 3 (n. s.. Vol. I), p. 226.
Abundance in western Ohio.

1880. Barnes, H. — Seventeen-year Cicada in Ohio. <Am. Ent., September, vol. 3

(n. s., Vol. I), pp. 227. 228.
Seasons and injuries.

1881. Riley, C. V.— Bui. 6, U. S. Ent. Comm., March, p. 58.

Orthography of name; quotes Walsh as to validity of tredecim as true species.

1881. Riley, C. V. — The periodical Cicadaalias " 17-year locust." <Am. Ent.. June
(May 19), v. 25. pp. 479-482? fig. 1. Correction ibid., July (June 22). 1881,
p. 578.

Extract from First Missouri Report, with additional notes: figures eggs, pupr. imago,
and punctured twig.

1881. Riley, C. V. — The periodical Cicada alias •' 17-year locust." <Fariner's Review,
June 16, vol. 0, p. 370.

Extract from First Missouri Report, with additional notes and requests for further informa-
tion in regard to distribution of the broods which appear in 1881.

1881. .— Sci. Amer., vol. 45, p. 21, July 9.

Records the appearance of the Cicada in southern Illinois, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Mobile,
Ala., in that year.

1881. Riley, C. V. — Selma, Ala.. Times, July 19, Cicada tredecim. abundani in Ala-
bama, as predicted.

1881. Riley, C. V.— The periodical Cicada. <Am. Agric, August, vol. 40. p. 132,

5 figs.
Brief sketch of the natural history, with figures.

1882. LiNTNER, J. A.— The 17-year locust. <Ontario [N. Y.] County Times. July 12,

(N. Y.) vol. 28, p. 3. "

Years of appearance during the present half century: broods in New York: injuries and
preventives.

inBLKXJKAl'IIY. 101

1882. Riley, C. V. — Cicada siptduhrim. • ,(ianl(Mi(>r's Mm. and Ildrlic. Scpicinhcr.
vol.24, pp. 274,275.

Orthography of the numes cicada trciirrim and cinnlii s, pu mh rim: 'iininr|iliic forms;
Masso»pora cicadirta para.sitic on Cioada.

1882. Osm)HN. IT.— Iiisi'cts of the forest -r/cr/r/a st })l< udtrini. Iowa Stale Leader,

Deeeinl)or 2.
Food habits of Cicada srplrndrcim: life history.

1883. RiLKY. C. V. —Am. Nat., ^farch (February 21). v..l. 17. \k :i22.

Instinct of Cicada and sense direction in insects.
1S8:>. SAiNnKHS. Wm. — Ins. Inj. to Fruits. \)\). 35 ;i!).
(ieiieral account of the species.

1883. Bessev, C. E. — The periodicaK'ieada in souiheaslern Ma.s.sachusetts. <Am.

Nat., October (September 17), vol. 17, p. 1071.
Abundant in June, 1883, in Marthas \'ineyard; notes by C. V. Riley.

1884. OsBORX, H. — Insects of the orchard. <Bul. Iowa Agric. College, August, No. 2,

l)p. S7-97. Trans. Iowa State Hortie. Soe. for 1883 (1884), vol. IS. pp. 5!()-52l .
luciiuics reference to periodical Cicada.

issi. I'hler, p. R.— Cassino's Stand. Nat. Hist.. IT. p. 227.
Natural history and distribution.

1885. Riley, C. V.— Destroying Cicadas. <Rural New Yorker, May 23. vol. 44. p. 353.

Reply to letter of J. A. K.

1 ^^5. Riley, C. V. — Expected advent of the locust. <Sci. Am., May 23, vol. 52, p. 320.
Farmer's Home Journ., June 13, 1885. Orange County (N. Y.) Farmer, May
28, 1885. See Sci. Am., June 20, 1885, vol. 52, p. 389.

Simultaneous appearance of a 17-year and a 13-year brood; localities of the two brood.s; life
history and habits.

1885. Weed, C. M. — The coming locust plague. <Prairie Farmer, May 23, vol. 57,
p. 329.
Notes on Cicada septendecim.

1885. Riley, C. V. — The periodical or 17-year Cicada. <Harper's Weekly, June 6,
vol. 29. p. 363, 4 figs.
Distribution of Brood X and of Brood XXIII; habits, enemies, etc.

1885. Riley, C. V. — The periodical or 17-year Cicada. <Am. Grange Bulletin. June 1 J .
Chronological record, natural history, and popular names.

1885. Ward, Lester F. — Premature appearance of the periodical Cicada. <Science,

Vol. Y, No. 123, June 12, p. 476.
1885. Riley, C. V. — The periodical Cicada. An account of Cicada septendecim and

its (redecim race, with a chronology of all broods known. <Bul. No. 8 [old

series], Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric. (June 17), 46 pp., 8 figs. Second edition,

July 13, 1885.

1885. Weed, C. M.— The 17-year locust. <Prairie Farmer, June 20, vol. 57. p. 393.

Brief account of the habits, etc.
1885. Riley, C. V. — Notes on the periodical Cicada. <"Science, June 26, vol. 5, pp.
518-521. Reprint: Sci. Amer. Suppl., June 27, 1885, vol. 19, pp. 7905. 7906.
Distribution of Brood X and of Brood XXIII in 188.5; life history, etc.
1885. Riley, C.V. — Periodical Cicada in Massachusetts. <Science, July3, vol. »,. p. i.

The occurrence in southeastern Massachusetts needs confinnation.
iss.'v Riley, C. V. — The influence of climate on Cicada septendecim. ■ "Enl . Am.,
August, Vol. I, p. 91.

Records the transfers of eggs of Brood X to the extreme Southern States where no scp-
tendecim brood is known to occur and of l^rood XXIII to Northern States where no tredrcim
brood is known to occur.

1885. D.wi.s. Wm. T.— The jx-riodical Cicada on Statcn Island. <Ent. Am.. Vol. I,
August, No. 5. p. 91 .
31117— No. 71—07 II

162 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

1885. Riley, C. V. — The song-notes of the periodical Cicada. <Science, September 25,
vol. 6, pp. 264, 265. Reprint, with additions: Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. for
1885, August, 1886, vol. 34, pp. 330-332. Translation: Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1886,
Jahrg. 47, pp. 158-160. See Science, September 11, 1885, vol. 6, p. 225.
Kansas City Review, October, 1885. p. 171.
Description of the three prevalent notes.

1885. LiNTNER, J. A.— The 13-year Cicada. <Argus (Albany), October 11. p. 1.
Notice of the life histor}\

1885 (?). Hathaway, G. H.— Sci. American.

Gives records of Brood XI for 1818-1809. (See Bui. 8, o. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agri-
culture, p. 18.)

1885. LiXTNER, J. A. — The 17-year locust, etc. <Second report on the injurious and

other insects of the State of New York. Albany (February, 1886), pp. 167-179,
figs. 43-47.

Brief bibliography and general account of the species, with special reference to the broods
occurring in New York.

1886. Newberry, .1. S. — Turrets of periodical Cicada in a cellar. -^From School of

Mines Quarterly, Science, Vol. VII, March 12.
1886. Howard, L. 0.— Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., I, June 4, 1885 (March 31. 1886), p. 29.
Edibility.

1886. Reley, C. V. — The periodical Cicada, etc. <Report of the Entomologist, Ann.
Rept. U. S. Commissioner Agric. for 1885, pp. 233-258, 1 map. 2 pi.. Separate:
Washington, June 8, 1886, pp. 27-52.
Reproduction and revision of Bui. 8, with important additions, map and plates.

1886. Butler, A. W. — The periodical Cicada in southeastern Indiana. -^Bul. No. 12,
Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric. (July 13), pp. 24-31.
Contains many interesting observations on habits, enemies, etc.

1886. Riley. C. Y. — Some popular fallacies and some new facts regarding Cicada sep-

tendedm L. <Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. for 1885 (August), vol. 34, p. 334.

Variety cassinii is not the race tredecim; twigs with eggs do not necessarily break off or die to
insure the hatching of the larva.

1887. Apgar, E. a. — Some observations on the anatomy of Cicada septendecim. <Jour-

nal Trenton Nat. Hist. Soc, January, pp. 43-46.
Mechanism of the genitalia,

1887. Lixtxer, J. A. — The 17-year locust, Cicada septendecim. <The Owl, May, vol.
2, pp. 17-19, figs. 1-5.
Life history.

1887. Lixtxer, J. A. — An experiment with the 13-year Cicada. <Report of the
State Entomologist to the Regents of the University of the State of New York
for the year 1885. 39th Ann. Rept. State Mus. Nat. Hist, for 1885 (July 6),
pp. 111,^112.
Planting of eggs of a 13-year brood in New York.

1887. RocKwooD, C. G., Jr. — An insect fight. <Science, vol. 10. No. 237, August 19,

p. 94. (Sphecius and Cicada.)

1888. ScHWARZ. E. A.— Cicadas at Fortress Monroe in June, 1886. <Proc. Ent. Soc.

Wash., Vol. I, July 8, 1886 (March, 1888), p. 52.
1888. WooDWORTH, C. W. — Synopsis of North American Cicadida\ <Psyche, Vol.
V, June, pp. 67, 68.
Tables for determining genera and species.

1888. Alexaxder, A. G. — After-effect of the oviposition of the periodical Cicada.
<Insect Life, Vol. I, July. p. 15.
Tells of injury to apple trees by falling of fruit.

1888. Riley. C. V., and L. O. Howard.— The periodical Cicada in 1888. <Tnsect
Life. Vol. I, July, p. 31.
Appearance of Brood XIII, septendecim, and Brood XXVI, tredecim, this year.

i?ihi.T()(;kaimiv. K).')

1888. McNeal, J.— Insect Lifo. Vol. I. p. 50.
Notes (if precursors of Broo(l XI II in ISSS.

1888. Wkkd. C. M. -Cicadas or luuvcst Hies and ImmHIos. <r.'i). (iiird.. Nnvciid.cr,

]). 15. 1 tiii.

1889. M.vKcii. .1. Wix'onsin letter on Cicada s, pi, ndivim. liiscci Lilc, \(,1. L.l.iini-

ary. p. '1\'>.

Brief note on their l\!it>its. food. jiikI (Miciiiics.
1S81). Riley. C. v.. and 1.. O. How akm). The jxTiodical Cicada in ISSf). Insect

Life. Vol. 1. April, p. 2!)S.
Lixjalitics of expected appearance of IJrodd X 1\'. si pit luhcim. in this yciir.

1S89, OsnoRX. H. — Notes on destructive insects. Ann. \{v\)\. Iowa State Agric.
Soc. for 1888, pp. ()70-()80.
Contains a brief general artirK< on tlv^ 17-year Cicada.

ISSn. MiirriKi.irr. M. E.— Kept. V . S. Dept. Ajjric. 1888, p. 135.
■Prei^s killed in Illinois.

ISS!). LiNTNHR, .1. A. — An experiment with the 13-year Cicada. Fifth Kept, on the
Injm-. and other Insects of the State of N. Y.. pp. 276-278.
Ihe planting of eggs for experiment.

1SS9. Smith, J. B. — The periodical Cicada. Garden and Forest, p. 430.
Localities in New Jersey for Broods XIV, II, VI, and X.

1889. Webster, F. M. — An early occurrence of the periodical Cicada. <Insect
Life. II. November, pp. 1(51, l(i2.

1889. Smith. .Iohx R. — The periodical Cicada. <Ann. Rept. of the Entomologist

[New Jersey] for 1889. p. 270.

On Brood XIV and other New Jersey l)roods.

1890. BucKHOUT. Wm. a. — The periodical Cicada in Pennsylvania. <Report

Penna. Agric. Expt. Sta. for 1889, pp. 182-187, 1 map.
Distribution of broods in the State.

1890. ScHWARZ, E. A. — Notes on Cicada septendecim in 1889. -^Proc. Ent. Soc.
Wash., Vol. I, pp. 230, 231 (May).

New localities in 1889 of Brood XIV; local distribution and reasons for accelerations, etc.

1890. Packard, A. "S. — Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. -"Fifth Rept.

U. S. Ent. Comm., Washington, pp. 95-97.
A general account.

1891. Riley. C. V.— Periodical locusts. <Sci. Amer., May 10. p. 313.

1891. Lewis, R. T. — The song of the Cicada is appreciated and listened to by other

insects. <Nature News, August, 1891, abstracted in Nature. 44, No. 1140,

September 3, p. 437.
189L Kohl. ^^'. M. — Seventeen-year locust. "Farmer's Review. NoatmiiIxt 1. p.

700.
1891. LixTXER. J. A. — Cicada scptendecim Ij'inn. The periodical Cicada. Seventh

Rept. on the Injur, and other In.sects of the State of N. Y.. pp. 290-301.
•Xdditions to the bibliography and account of a new or unknown brood.

1^!)2. Webster, F. M. — Cicada scptendrcim. Notes. ^Ohio BuL No. 45. Dec. p. 210.
Brief note on 17-year Cicada.

1893. LiXTXER, J. A. — The periodical Cicada. Count, (ientl.. Murch 2.], p. 22(i.
Keply to inquiries that it will not be a locust year in New Jersey or New "i'ork.

1«93. RiLEV, r. v.— Circular Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agric, June.

Localities for Broods XVIII (trededm) and I (.septenflecim); request for confirmations, etc.

1^93. RiLEv, C. v.. and L. O. Howard. — The present year's appearance of the i)eri-
odical Cicada. -' In.sect Life, Vol. V, July, pp. 298-300.
Localities for Brood XVIII, trcdecim, and Brood I, scptendecim, in this year.

164 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

1893. Slixgerlaxd, M. v.— The '• 17-year locust" in its hole. <Ruml New Yorker,
July 29, p. 509.
Life history and habits.

1893. Riley, C. V.— Periodical Cicada. <Science, August 18, p. 86.
Localities for Brood XVIII, tredecim, and Brood I, septendecim, in 1893.

1893. OsBORN, H.— Trans. Iowa State Hort. Soc, 1892.
Brief account.

1893. McCarthy, G.— The periodical Cicada. <Bul. Xo. 92, X. C. Agric. Exp.
Sta., August, pp. 108. 109. 1 fig.
Brief account.

1893. Smith, J. B.— The periodical Cicada. <Bul. Xo. 95, X. J. Agric. Exp. Sta.,

September, pp. 6, 1 fig.
The expected appearance of Brood II in the next year in New Jersey.

1894. Riley, C. V.— Circular Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agric, May 5, pp. 4.

Gives distribution by counties of Broods XIX and II, and asks for confirmations.
1894. Slixgerlaxd, M. V. — The periodical Cicada or locust. <The Farmer's
Advocate, June 1, p. 225.
Brief account, and the broods that -nill appear in 1894.

1894. Davis, Wm. T.— The 17-year locust on Staten Island. <Proc. Xat. Sci.

Assn. Staten Isand, IV, Xo. 4, February 10, pp. 13-15.
1894. Davis, W. T.— The 17-year Cicada on Staten Island. <Journ. X. Y. Ent.

Soc, II, Xo. 1, March, pp. 38, 39.
Records of cicadas observed since 1877.

1894. Davis, AVm. T.— The harvest flies (Cicada) of Staten Island. X. Y. <Amer.
Xat., Vol. 28, Xo. 328, April, pp. 363, 364.
Various notes on Cicada tibicen L., song, time of appearance, and capture, and on C
marginata Say and C. canicularis Harr. Mere mention of the periodical Cicada.

1894. Riley, C. V.— The periodical Cicada. <Rept. of Ent. in Ann. Rept. U. S.
Dept. Agric, 1893, pp. 204, 205.
Records of broods for 1893.

1894. Davis, W. T.— The 17-year locust on Staten Island. <Amer. Xat. , Vol. 28, Xo.
329, May, p. 452.
Cicada observed since 1877.

1894. Smith, J. B. — The periodical Cicada. <Entom. Xews, May, Vol. V, p. 145.

Notice of the brood to appear in 1894, and the relation of the EngUsh sparrow to this insect.

1894. Lixtxer, J. A. — The periodical Cicada, or the 17-year locust. <Circular,
Albany, X. Y., June 19, p. 4.
Habits, turrets, questions regarding the present appearance.
1894. Slixgerlaxd, M. V. — The periodical Cicada, or 17-year locust. <Rural Xew
Yorker,' July 28, p. 470; August 4, p. 488.
General popular account, habits, and broods.

1894. Davis, W. T.— The 17-year locust on Staten Island in 1894. <Proc Xat. Sci.

Assn. of Staten Island, Vol. IV, Xo. 9, September, pp. 33-35.
1894. Shufeldt, R. W. — The 17-year Cicada and some of its allies. <Popular Science

Xews, Vol. XXVIII, October 10, pp. 154, 155.

1894. Laxder, B.— Hut-building 17-year cicadas. <Sci. Amer., Octol)er 13.
Full account, with explanations and figure.

1894. Smith, J. B.— Insect Life, Vol. VII, October, pp. 192-195.

Under ' ' Notes of the year in New Jersey," gives distribution of Cicada in 1S94 in that State.

1894. Krom, 0. S.— The hut-building Cicada. <Sci. Amer., Xovember 10. p. 295.

Criticises theories of Mr. Lander, and suggests other explanations.
1894. Laxder, B. — Cicada hut-builders. <Sci. Amer., Xovember 24, p. 327.

Replies to Mr. Krom, and gives additional proof in support of his (Lander's) point of view.

I^IIU.KXJKAVIIY. 105

1894. Smith, J. B.— Thoporiodical Cicacla. \R(i)l. Ijitcin.. Ann. ]\r\)\. X..I. A-^'iic.

Kxper. Sta., pp. 5S2-591, !io;s. 52-57.
General articles relating espwiaily to Hrood 1 1 in New Jersey; Cicada towers discussed.

1895. Lander, Benj.vmin. — Domed hurrows of Cicada siplindccini. <.Tourn. X. Y.

Ent. Soc, III, March 1. j.]). 33-38, plate.
1895. Love, E. G. — Notes out he I 7-yoar Cicada, Cicada srptcndcciin. C.Joiinial \.Y.
Micros. Soc, XI, Ai)ril 2. j)p. 37-40, plate li).
Original observations on structural details, the turrcls. etc.

1895. Makl.vit, C. L.— The Hemipterous mouth. <Proc. Ktit. Soc Wasli., Vol. Ill,
No. 4, pp. 241-249, Juno 22, tigs. 21-23.
Detailed study of the hemipterous mouth from dissection of the pniodiciii ("iciida.

1895. LiNTNER, J. A.— The 17-year locust in the State of New York in 1894. <10th
Kept. Inj. and other Ins. N. Y. From 48tli Kept. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist.,
pp. 420-425, 2 iigs.
Quotes circular (see above"* and gives the results.

1895. McC.\RTHY, G.— Bui. No. 120, N. Car. Agric Exp. Sta., November.

Contains brief notice of Cicada.

1896. OsBORN, Herbert. — Observations on the Cicadse of Iowa. <Proc. Iowa Acad.

Sci., Ill, 1895, pp. 194-203. Cicada septendccim.
1896. Slingerl.wd, M. V. — The apple crop and 17-year locusts. <Rural New
Yorker, January 25, p. 53.
Doubts that the Cicada has any influence on the crop.

1896. Hyatt, J. D. — Cicada septendccim; its mouth part.s, and terminal armor. <Am.
Mo. Mic Journ., February 17, p. 46.
Mouth parts and ovipositor of the Cicada; method of oviposition (illus.).

1896. Slingerland, M. V. — On what do 17-vear Cicadas live? <rRural New Yorker,
May 23, p. 351.
Food habits of Cicada.

1896. Bruner. L. — Seventeen-year locusts. <Nebraska State Journal, June 19.

1896. Slingerland, ;M. V. — Seventeen-year locusts not poisonous. <Rural New

Yorker, July 11, p. 464.
Food habits of Cicada.

1897. ScHWARZ, E. A.— The periodical Cicada in 1897. <Cir. No. 22, s. s., Div. Ent.,

U. S. Dept. Agric, May, pp. 4.
Localities for Brood V, septendecim, and Brood XXII, tredecim, in 1897.

1897. Webster, F. M.— The 17-year locust in Ohio. <Ohio Farmer, May 20, p. 40, 1
map.
Expected occurrence in the State.

1897. Slingerland, M. V. — Do 17-year locusts damage fruit trees? <Rural New
Yorker, July 3, p. 437.
Damage not of great importance.

1897. "Webster, F. M. — The San Jose scale and the periodical Cicada. ^Newspaper
bulletin, Ohio Agric. Exp. Sta., November, pp. 2.
Relates to Brood V in eastern Ohio.

1897. Webster, F. M. — Brood XV [V] of Cicada septendecim in Ohio. <Can, Ent.,
October, pp. 225-229.
Distribution of Brood V in Ohio in 1807.

1897. Web.ster, F. M. — The periodical Cicada, or so-called 17-year locust in Ohio.

<Bul. No. 87, Ohio Agric Exp. Sta., November, pp. 37-68, 11 figs.
Distribution in Ohio, habits, natural enemies, etc.

1898. Hopkins, A. D.— The periodical Cicada in West Virginia. <Bul. No. 50, W. Va.

Agric Exp. Sta., January f April), pp. 46, 23 figs., 1 map, 4 pis.
A general account with detailed records of all broods in West Virginia.

166 THE PERTODTCAL CICADA.

1898. ScHWARZ, E. A.— The periodical Cicada in 1898. <Circular Xo. 30, s. s. Div.
Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric, April, pp. 4.
Location of Brood XXIII, tredecim, and Brood VI, septendecim, in 1898.

1898. Howard, L. O. — A new egg-parasite of the periodical Cicada. <Can. Ent., Vol.
XXX, pp. 102, 103, April.
Description of Lathromeris cicadse, new species.
1898. LiNTNER, J. A. — The periodical Cicada. <12th Ann. Rep. State Entom., Xew

York, 1896. (May, 1898), pp. 272-289, Pis. IX-XIII.

Gives additions to bibliography, a general account of insects, with original observations on
habits, and especially on the Cicada chambers, chiefly based on Brood II in 1894.

1898. Marlatt, C. L. — The periodical Cicada. An account of Cicada septendecim, its
natural enemies and the means of preventing its injury, together with a sum-
mary of the distribution of the different broods. <Bul. U. S. Dept. Agric,
Div. Ent. No. 14, n. s., 148 pp., 4 pis., 57 figs. '
Habits, varieties, distribution, systematics, structure, development, enemies, and remedies.

1898. Forbes, S. A. — The seventeen-year Cicada. <Prairie Farmer. June 25, p. 9.

1898. Sanderson', E. D. — Entomology. <Country Gentleman, July 21. pp. 573. 574,

Ifig.
Note on Cicada tredecim.

1898. de Yarigny, H. — La cigale de dix-sept ans. Histoire d'un insecte. <Rev.
scient. (4) T. 10, pp. 353-365. C. septendecim.
A lengthy review, with extracts from Bulletin 14, n. s., Division of Entomology.

1898. ScHEXKLiXG, Siegmuxd. — Die siebzehnjiihrige Cikade. <Die Xatur. Jahrg. 47,
pp. 447-451. C. septendecim nach Marlatt.

1898. HoPKixs, A. D. — Some notes on observations in West Virginia. <Bul. Xo. 17,
n. s., Div. Ent., U. S.-Dept. Agric, November, pp. 44-49.

Includes a reference to work on the periodical Cicada, and especially the relation of tempera-
ture to appearance.

1898. Marlatt, C. L. — A new nomenclature for the broods of the periodical Cicada.
<Miscl. Results Work Div. Entom., Bui. U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. Ent., No.
18, n. s., pp. 52-58. C. septendecim.

1898. Marlatt, C. L. — A consideration of the validity of the old records bearing on

the distribution of the broods of the periodical Cicada, with particular refer-
ence to the occurrence of Broods VI and XXIII in 1898. <Miscl. Results
Work Div. Entom., Bui. U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. Ent., Xo. 18, n. s.. pp.
59-78. C. septendecim.

1899. Sajo, Karl. — Die siehzehniixhrigeCi'kside {Cicada septendecim). <Prometheus,

Jahrg. 10, pp. 388-393, 401-406. 13 figs. (Z. T. nach C. L. Marlatt).

Account of habits and life history based largely on Bui. 14, n. s., U. S. Dept. Agric. Div.
Entom.

1899. Webster, F. M.— Distribution of Broods XXII [X]. V [XIII]. and VIII [XIVJ
of Cicada septendecim in Indiana. cProc Indiana Acad. Sci. 1899. pp.
225-227, 1 map.

1899. Smith, J. B. — The periodical Cicada. <Report of the Entom. of the Xew
Jersey Agric Coll. Exp. Station for 1898, pp. 447-450. May 1.
New Jersey records of Brood VI, 1898, with map.

1899. Laxder. B. — Xote on the seventeen-year Cicada. <Journ. X. Y. Ent. Soc,
vii, pp. 212-214.
Notes on the Cicada huts — shallow soil believed to be cause.

1899. Webster. F. M. — Entomology. <Ohio Farmer, August 31. p. 152.

Notes on Cicada septendecim.
1899. Felt. E. P. — Xotes of the year for Xew York. <,Country Gentleman, Sept.
14, p. 733.

Note on Cicada septendecim.

lUHLI()(Jir\PIIY. 1()7

1899. Felt, E. P.— Notes of the year lor Now York. <Rul. X... L'o. n. s.. Div. Km..
V. S. Dt'pt. Aijric., XovtMiilxT. j). (i'i.

KiHonl l"(.r Brood \" 1 1 in wosicrn Nrw York. 1899.

1899. Allkn, (.iijANT.— ■' The day ol ihe caiikerworm." <Slran«l Mai,'. Oct.

Relates chielly to the periodical CMcada, with many illustrations from Hiil. 11, n. s. (Div.
Ent.. I'. S. Dept. Agric.K fxi\'on as new ! Ki'i)rinl . Sei. Am. Sup., v. I'.i ( I'.HK) . pp. Jo 1 •_>•_>-•_>( 1 1 .'-l.

1900. Felt, E. P.— Fifteemh Uoix.rl of iho Siato l-:nt()innl..<:i.<t on the iiijuridi- and

othor iii.<crts of iho Sialo of New York. l>ul. X. Y. .'^laic Miix-mu. vol. (i.

No. ;>1 . .Iiine. J). ") 1 I.
List of localities in western New York for IJrood \'ll, ly.i'.t.

1900. Wekster, F. M.— The 17-year locust in Ohio. <01iio Farmer. .Inly .").
Relating to Brood YIII in eastern Oiiio.

1900. Hopkins. A. D. — The periodical Cicada or scvenleeii-year locust in West Vir-
ginia. <Bul. No. (iS. W. Va. Agric. Exp. 8ta.. Sepleinher. pp. 259-:«0,
3 pis.. 4 ligs.. 9 maps. A revision of Bui. 50.

A full account of the Cicada, with descriptions of all the l)roods occurring in ^Vest Yirgiuia,
with maps.

1900. Lugger, 0. — Bugs injurious to cultivated plants. <Bul. No. (iO. Minn. Au'rie.
Exp. Sta., December.

Periodical Cicada discussed, pp. 102-;>. Illustrations. Does not occur in Minnesota.

1900. Webster, F. M, — Notes on the occurrence of Brood XX [VIIIJ of the period-

ical Cicada, Cicada scptendecim, in Ohio in 1900. <Entom. News, Vol. XI,
December, pp. 638-640, 1 fig.
Report on Brood VIII in Ohio in 1900, with map.

1901. Slixgerlaxd, M. V. — Work of the 17-year locust. <Rural New Y''orker, Octo-

ber 12, p. 690.

Letter by "S. B." and not by Slingerland. Tied green rj'e straw around the trees and left
two trees unprotected. It was several years before they fully recovered (the two trees).
Says that trees that exude giun are not much harmed Ijy the locust. Speaks of sparrows
eating Cicada.

1901. Johnson, W. G. — Timely warning to fruit growers. <American Agri( ultur-
ist, July 13, p. 32, 1 fig.
Notice of coming brood of seventeen-year Cicada.

1901. Slingerland, M. V. — Seventeen-year locust. Watermelon bug. <Rural
New Yorker, July 13, p. 484.
Letter and reply, X. Y.
1901. Fernald, C. H., & H. T. Fernald. — Report of the entomologists. <Thir-
teenth Annual Report, Hatch Exp. Sta,, Mass., January, p. 86.
Brief notes on Marthas Vineyard swann (Brood VIII) in 1900; as much in evidence as ever.
1901. Webster, F. M. — Report of the committee on entomology. <Ann. Rept.
Ohio State Hort. Soc. f. 1900, pp. 1, 2, 7 pis., 2 figs.
Report on Brood VIII.

1901. Felt, E. P. — Seventeen-year Cicada. <Country Gentleman, November 7,

p. 902.
1901. Hopkins, A. D. — Circular of warning. -^W. Va. Agric. Exp. Sta., Oct. 15,

1 p., 1 map.
Relating to the 1902 swarm of the periodical Cicada.

1901. Sanderson, E. D. — Three orchard pests. <Bul. No. 53, Delaware Agric. Exp.

Sta.. January, 1902 (Dec, 1901), pp. 13-19.

Includes an illustrated account of Cicada septendecim L., pp. 1.3-19, wit h spec-ial reference to
Brood X. 1902, in Delaware.

1902. Felt, E. P.— Spraying for Cicada. <Country Gentleman. >rarch 13, p. 219.

Mechanical oil emulsions not advised.

1902. Hunter, W. D.— The periodical Cicada in 1902. <Circ. No. 44, s. s., Div.
. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric, March 13. pp. 4.
An inquiring circular sent out for Brood X, 1902.

168 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

1902. Slixgerlaxd, M. V. — Whitewash for 17-year locusts, <Ri]ral New Yorker,
March 15, p. 189.
Heavy coat of whitewash on trees fairly protective.

1902. Lowe, V. H. — Miscellaneous notes on injurious insects. <Bul. Xo. 212, Xew
York State Agric. Exp. Sta., April, pp. I-IS^ pis. I-IV on Cicada.

Contains an advance warning of Brood X of the periodical Cicada, with some good photo-
graphs.

1902. Marlatt, C. L. — A new nomenclature for the broods of the periodical Cicada.

<Cir. No. 45, s. s., Div.. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric, pp. 8, May 1.
1902. Alwood, W. B. — AMiat to do with locusts. <Rural Xew Yorker, May 17, p 351.
1902. Hopkins, A. D. — ^Miat to do with locusts. <Rural Xew Yorker, May 17, p. 351.
1902. HooPES, Abxer.— Entom. News, XVIII, Mch., pp. 108, 109.
Record of hand collecting in nursery, June IS, 1902. Brood X.

1902. QuAlNTANCE, A. L. — The seventeen-year locusts; how the adults feed. <Rural

Xew Yorker, July 26, p. 511.
1902. OsBORN, H. — Insects affecting forest trees, <Proc. Columbus Hortic. Soc,

vol. 17, September, pp. 79-92.
1902. QuAiNTANCE, A. L. — On the feeding habits of the periodical Cicada. Bui.

Xo. 37, n. s., Div. Entom., U. S. Dept. Agric, Xovember, pp. 90-94. 3 figs.
First careful observation demonstrating feeding of adult cicadas.

1902. OsBORX, H. — Some notable insect occurrences in Ohio for the first half of 1902.
<Bul. Xo. 37, n. s., Div. Entom., U. S. Dept. Agric. Xovember.
Brief reference (p. 116) to periodical Cicada, Brood X, 1902, in Ohio.

1902. Saxdersox, E. D. — Xotes from Delaware. <Bul. Xo. 37, n. s., Div. Entom.,
U. S. Dept. Agric, Xovember.
Brief record for Delaware for Brood X, 1902 (p. 101).

1902. Quaintance, A. L. — The periodical Cicada or seventeen-year locust. <Bul,
Xo. 87, Maryland Agric. Exp. Sta., Xovember, pp. 65-116; 2 pis., 17 figs.

Full account of Brood X, 1902, in Maryland, with valuable new observations on habits,
etc., and map.

1902, OsBORX, Herbert. — A statistical study of variations in the periodical Cicada.
<The Ohio Xat., Ill, Dec, pp. 323-326.
A careful study of the cassinii form.

1902. Osborx, Herbert. — Statistical study of variation in the periodical Cicada.
<(Amer. Assoc.) Science, new series, vol. 16, pp. 345, 346.
Synopsis of paper.

1902. Sanderson, E. D. — Report of the entomologist: <Delaware Agric, Exp.

Sta., Report 1902, pp. 137-139 (3 plates).
Brief notes on periodical Cicada in Delaware, Brood X, 1902.

1903. Marlatt, C. L. — Notes on the periodical Cicada in the District of Columbia

in 1902. <Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., vol. 5, pp. 124-126.
1903. Marlatt, C. L. — An early record of the periodical Cicada. <Proc Ent. Soc.
Wash., vol. 5, Xo. 2, pp. 126-7.
Author's extras published February 4, 1903.

1903. Pettit, R. H. — Mosquitoes and other insects of the year 1902. <Special Bui.
Xo. 17, Mich. Agric Exp. Station, January.
Brief note on periodical Cicada (pp. 21, 22) with records for 1902, Brood X.

1903. Smith, J. B. — Report of the entomological department for 1902. <Xcw Jersey
Agric. Exp. Sta., February.

Cicada septendecim, pp. 470-489— record of Brood X, with notes on other Xew Jersey broods
and map of all broods occurring in the State.

1903. Carman, H. — Seventeen-year locusts in Kentucky. <Biil. Xo. 107, Kentucky
Agr. Exp. Sta., pp. 81-100, 4 pis., 3 figs. (May 23).
General account. Special reference to Brood X, 1902; maps, 1902 and 190G.

mBLKXlKAPIIV. H)\)

lOOrj. QiAiNTAXCE, A. L. — Entomological notes fnun Maryland. r.iil. NO. U). \)'\\ .
Knt., U. S. Dopt. Agi-ic, August, p. 47, 1 map.
Includes reference to periodical Cicada, with map for Maryland of Hrood X . I'.toj.

WHY.]. Alwood, W. B. — A note on the oviposition of the seventeen-year locu.^t i ('inula
scpt('nd(ci)n Linn.) - Bui. No. -lO, i)i\. lint.. \' . S. l)(]»t. ALriic. Augu.^l,
pp. 75, 7(j.

Indicates the possible repellont action of Hordfiiiix inixturc, jiml gives list of SA plants
oviposited in.

!!)():>. Mkkk, W. J. — On the mouth parts of the llemiptera. r.ul. l'ni\. Kan.^as,

ii, ])p. 257-277, pis. vii-xi. November,
A ietailod anatomical study based on the periodical Cicada.

B)03. l^RiTTON, W. E.— Third Report of the State Entomoh)gi.si. <Rei)ort C'onn.
Agric. Exp. Sta. f. 1903, p. 214.
Brood XI, 190.>, expected but no records obtained. (Was reporlod for Khodc Island.;

1003. Felt, E. P. — Eighteenth report of the State Entomologist on injui ious and other
in.sects of the State of New York. <Bul. (54, X. Y. Stale Mtiseum, Albany,
p. 113.
Brief report of Brood X, 1902, in Now York.

1904. McCooK, Henry. — [The periodical Cicada.] <Harpers' Mag., June, 1904.

1905. Garmax, H. — The seventeen-year locust will not appear in Kentucky this year

(1905). <Kentucky Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 120, pp. 74-76. May.
Distribution of Broods XIV, 1906, and XIX, 1907, from Kentucky Bulletin 107.

1905. [Surface, H. A.J — The seventeen-year locust in Pennsylvania. <Penna. Dopt.

Agric. Mo. Bui. Div. Zool., vol. 3, No. 6 (Oct.), pp. 174, 175.
Advance warning of Brood XIV, 1906.

190(5. Marlatt, C. L.— The periodical Cicada in 1906. <U. S. Dept. Agric, Bur.
Ent. Cir. 74, pp. 5, figs. 3, Apr. 16.

1906. [Surface, H. A.] — The Cicada or seventeen-year locust in Pennsylvania.

<Penna. Dept. Agric. Mo. Bui. Div. Zool., vol. 3, No. 12, pp. 369-377.
Various records of appearance in Pennsylvania.

1906. [Sandel, Rev. Andreas.] — "Extracts from the Journal of." <Pa. Mag. of
Hist. & Biog., Vol. XXX, Oct., pp. 448-449.

APPEXDIX.

DR. GIDEON B. SMITH'S CHRONOLOGY OF THE PERIODICAL

CICADA.

[From a copy, by Dr. J. G. Morris, of Doctor Smith's unpublished manuscript.]

It is proper to remark in relation to the districts in this tribe or
division that there is some uncertaint}^ in relation to some of them
(as well as to those of the northern division) that have their borders
on the great line that separates the two divisions, owing to the fact,
remarked upon in another place in this work, that the districts often
interlock, those of the northern running down into the territory" of
the southern and those of the southern running up into that of the
northern division, sometimes for hundreds of miles. A remarkable
instance of this will be found in the case of the southern Illinois dis-
trict, which ascends to the north nearly three degrees of latitude above
the regular line of division; and also to the lappiag of one district
over another on their respective boundaries, elsewhere noticed. The
reader will therefore make due allowance for such errors as he may
find in the dates of appearance.

REGISTER OF THE SOUTHERN TRIBE (tHIRTEEX-YEAR LOCUSTS).

1842. Illinois. — In Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, Perry, Randolph, Mom-oe, St.
Clau-, Madison, Bond, Clinton, Edwards, Marion, and adjacent counties in
the southern end of the State, in 1829, 1842, 1855, and agam in 1868. Of this
there is great doubt whether it belongs to the seventeen-year tribe, as is
indicated by the following paragi'aph from the Baltimore Sun of June 13, 1859:
''The locusts have made their appearance in EgA^Dt, in southern Illinois,
and cover woods and orchards in swarms."

1842. Kentucky. — Northwest corner of State, about Paducah and adjacent counties
in the south, in 1829, 1842, 1855, and again in 1868.

1842. Alabama. — Russell and adjacent counties on the east side of Black Warrior
River, in 1842, 1855, and again in 1868.

1842. Louisiana. — Morehouse Parish, Caddo, Claiborne. Washila, and adjacent
parishes, in 1855, and again in 1868.

1842. Arkansas.— AW the northern counties in 1842, 1855, 1868.

1842. South Carolina. — Chester district and all adjoining to the Georgia line and to
North Carolina north[ward] in 1816, 1829, 1842, 1855, 1868.

1842. Tnifussce. — Montgomery, Bedford, Williamson, Rutherford [and adjacent
counties], in 1842, 1855, and again in 1868.

1842. GVorf/m.— Cherokee County in 1816, 1829, 1842, 1855. 1868.

1842. Xnrlh (V//o/(;ja.— Mecklenburg County in 1816, 1829, 1842, 1855, 1868.
171)

DK. (ilDKoN H. SMI'lll's ('HU()N< >L( k; Y. l/l

1842. Missouri.— \\\ southeast \k\v\ in 1SL'!». ISl'J. IS")."), lS(iS.

1843. Georgia. — Halx'ishain and Kal)imiVi ((.uiitics in IS43, 1S50, ls<i!).

1843. Georgia. — Miiscom'f, .laspiT, (Irccnc WasliiiiLTioii. and adjacent eoiiniies in Isi;;,

185(J, 1809.

1844. Florida. — Jackson, (ladsdon, and Washington count i<s in IMl. lSo5, 1S7().

1845. Mississippi.— Vrom \hv Mississii)j)i River east to a ridije ihai divides the State

north and south, 45 mih's from the river, and north and souih lo ilic liMimd-
ariesof the State, in 180(;, JSl!). 1832. 1845. 1858.

1845. Louisiana.— Ei\^\ and West I''eliciana in IStXI. ls|!(, \s:V2. 1S45, 1858.

1846. Gcorgr/a.— Gwinnett. I)ekall>. and Newton ((.unties in ]81(i, 1850.
1846. Tennessee. — Northern ])art in ISKi. and aiiain in 1S59.

1846. ^fississippi. — All tho east of the State, from th(^ ridge 45 mihs fioni iln- ri\cr
on the west to the east boundary, in 1820, 1833, 1846, 185!).

1S49. 'J'l.ids. — Appeared in some parts in vast numbers: unahh- to i:et any jiaii iculars.
If true, will appear again in 1862.

1854. G't'or(/ifl.— Cherokee County, northcn-n part, in 1828, 1841. 1854, 1867.

1855. Xorfh Carolitia. — Buncombe and McDowell counties in 1855.

[X. B. — Doubtful whether this is a southern or northern district. Tliey
appeared in 1855, at all events, and will again in 18()8 or 1872.]
1859. Louisiana. — CaiToll Parish, May 1.
1859. .4?i-07Jsa5.— Phillips County, :May 10.
1859. Tennessee. — About Memphis.

REGISTER OF THE NORTHERN" TRIBE (SEVENTEEN-YEAR LOCUSJS).

1842. The locust appeared in North Carolina from Raleigh to near Petersl)urg. in
Virginia, and will appear again in 1859.

1842. They appeared in the valley of Virginia from the Blue Ridge on the east, the
Potomac River on the north, to the Tennessee and North Carolina lines on
the south, and several counties in the west, in 1808, 1825, 1842, and will
appear again in 1859.

1842. Illinois. — About Alton, and again in 1859.

1842. Maryland. — Southern part of St. Mary County, dividing the county a1)out mid-
way east and west. Appeared there in 1825, 1842, and again in 1859.

1842, Xorth Carolina. — Rowan, Davie, Cabarrus, Iredell, and adjacent counties in
1825, 1842, and will appear again in 1859.

1842. Indiana. — Sullivan and Knox counties in 1859.

1843. Neiv York and Connecticut from Long Island Sound, west side of Connecticut

River, north on both sides of the Hudson River to Washington County, N. Y.,
and west to Montgomery County on the Mohawk Rivor. A])peare(l there in
1809, 1826, 1843, and will again in 1860.

1843. Michigan. — Kalamazoo; appeared in 1843, and will again in LStiO.

1843. Indiana. — Dearborn County; will again in 1860.

1843. North Carolina. — CaldwelK??), Rockingham, Stokes, Guilford, Rowan, Surry,
and adjacent counties: appeared in 1792, 1809, 1826, 1843, and will again in
1860.

1843. Pennsylvania. — Bounded by Peters Mountain on the south, Mahonlago (?)
Mountain on the north, and extending from the Susquehanna to the Dela-
ware River; appeared there in 1843, and will in 1860.

1843. New Jersey.— Whole State, in 1775, 1792, 1809, 1826, 1843, and again in IStiO.

1843. Maryland. — From Anne Arundel County to the north part of St. Mary, from

the Potomac to the Chesapeake Bay, in 1809, 1826, 1843, 1860.

1844. Illinois. — In WaiTen County, aiul will again in 1861.
1844. Intra. — In ^-arious ]xir1>;, and will again in 1861.

172 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

1845. Missouri. — All the western part of the State from Saline County west, as far a?

heard from, north to the boundary- of the State and south to Arkansas in 1845,
and will again in 1862.

1846. Ohio. — Eastern part, extending west to Scioto River and Sandusky on Lake

Erie, extending over twelve counties in 1829. 1846. and again in 1863.
1846. T%i7ifa.— Southeastern part in 1829, 1846, and will in 1863.

1846. TTr^mia.— Lewis County, in 1795, 1812, 1829, 1846, and will in 1863.

1847. About WTieeling, in Virginia, in 1830, and will again in 1847, 1864.

1848. Neiv York. — In Monroe, Livingston, Madison, and adjacent counties in 1797,

1814, 1831, 1848, and will in 1865.

1849. Pennsylvania. — In Armstrong, Clarion, Jefferson, Chemung. Huntingdon. Cam-

bria, Indiana, Butler, Mercer, BeaA^er, and in nearly all the western counties
in 1832, 1849, and will in 1866.

1849. OJiio. — In Mahoning, Carroll. Trumbull, Columbiana, and adjacent counties,

especially in Columbiana in 1812, 1829, 1846, the eastern district lapping over
this in that county; appeared in this district in 1815. 1832. 1849, and will-
in 1866.

1850. Virginia.— Coimtj (?) and adjacent temtory in 1833, 1850, and will in 1867. a

1851. Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia. — Beginning at Germantown. Pa.;

south to the middle of Delaware; west through the eastern shore of Mary-
land, upper part of Anne Arundel; west through the District of Columbia,
Loudoun County, Va., where it laps over the south Virginia district from the
Potomac to Loudoun County some 10 to 20 miles in width, and [in] this strip
of ten-itory they appear every eighth and ninth year. Thence the line
extends through the northern counties of Virginia and Maryland to the
Savage Mountain, and thence along the southern tier of counties in Pennsyl-
vania to Germantown. The whole territory embraced in these boundaries is
occupied by the locusts. Appeared here in 1766. 1783, 1800, 1817, 1834. 1851,
and will again in 1868.

1851. Ohio. — Cincinnati; Franklin, Columbus; Piqua, Miami County. This district

extends into Indiana to New Albany, Madison, Indianapolis, to the Wabash
River, Ten-e Haute, and to Louisville. Ky., in 1834, 1851; will again in 1868.

1852. Massachusetts. — Bristol County, Dearfield, Hampshire, and to Fall RiA'er in

1767, 1784, 1801, 1818, 1835, 1852, and will in 1869.

1853. 0/a'o.— Vinton County in 1853, and will in 1870.

1853. Illinois. — In Jo Daviess County, and will in 1870.

1854. Illinois. — In Winnebago. Menard County, and neighborhood in 1854: again in

1S71

1855. Maryland. — On the old Liberty Road leading to Carroll, and Adams County,

Pa., and on the Winden (?) Mile Road extending to Carlisle, Pa., in 1838,

1855, and in 1872.
1855. Kentucky. — About Frankfort, Lexington, and Flemingsburg, extending to

Meigs and Gallia counties, Ohio, in 1838, 1855, and in 1872.
1855. Maryland. — Eastern Shore from Cecil County to Worcester in 1838. 1855. and

in 1872.
1855. Massachisetis.—BurTistAhlQ County, in 1770. 1787, 1804, 1821, 1838, 1855, and in

1872.
1855. Virginia. — Kanawha County, extending only 15 miles each way, in 1838, 1855,

and in 1872.
1855. Xorth Carolina. — In Buncombe and McDowell counties in 1855: again in 1872.

[N. B. — There is some doubt whether this district is not a 13-year district.
The locusts appeared there in 1855, at all events.]

o This evidently refers to Brood IX, which is known from many counties in Vir-
ginia (see pp. 49-50).

I

DK. (UDKON n. SMI'llTs ( IIK()>'()L< >ci V . 173

[Note ox the Smith Register. — An cxainiTiatiim ni the ahovc n^M.-tcr nf ;ij)])«-:u-
ancos, prepared by Dr. Gideon B. Smith, at once iiidicaics the jjainsiakint,' caic w liidi
Doctor Smith must fiave devoted to the subji'ct. and surprises one with the a(<ura< y
and comph'teness of the records. All ol I he iin})ortant broods known uiiiil recently
are di'signated more or less completely in Doctor Smith's n-gister, naiiie|\ , ilie scncii
j;}-year broods and the fourteen 17-y(>ar broods mentioned in liulletin 11.

Taking the reconls in the order in which they are given in Doctor Smith's register,
and beginning with the lo-year race, it will be seen that the localities listed after 1842
and 1855 refer to Brood XIX, after 1843 to Brood XX, and similarly 1844 to Brood XXI,
1845 to Brood XXII, 184G and 1859 to Brood XXIII, 1849 to Brood XXVI, and 1854
to Brood XVIII.

Comparing in the same way his register of the northern tribe, or 17-year race, it is
seen that his localities listed after 1842 apply to Brood I, after 1843 to Brood II, and
similarly 1844 to Brood III, 1845 to Brood IV, 1846 to Brood V, 1847 to Brood VI, 1848
to Brood VII, 1849 to Brood VIII, 1850 to Brood IX, 1851 to Brood X, 1852 to Brood
XI, 1854 to Brood XIII, and 1855 to Brood XIV. The records given after 1853 are
probably erroneous, as indicated in the discussion of my Brood XII (pp. 55-56). —
C. L.M.J

ixi)i;x

rag.'.

Aootio acid, against periodical Cicada 143

Amprlis ndrorum, oneiny of periodical (Ucada , 139

Ants, cncniies of periodical Cicada 130

Aphis, woolly. {See Schi:oncitra lanifjcrn.)

Apple, food j)lant of periodical Cicada 102

injury through oviposition of periodical Cicada 105, lOG, 107

AstmgaUniis irislis, enemy of periodical Cicada 139

B:rolophus bicolor, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Hass. l)lack. (See Micro ptcru s salmoidcs.)

BthUa sp., enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Hircli. black. iooA plant of periodical Cicada 101

15isul})hid of carbon, against grape root-aphis ■. . . . 145

periodical Cicada 145-146

lllackbird. (See Quiscalus quiscula and Q. q. sencus.)

Dordeaux mixture, repellent against periodical Cicada 144

Canker-worm, Xothrus ovivorus an enemy 135

Carl)olic acid, against periodical Cicada 143

Cardinal grosbeak. (See Cardinalis cardinalis.)

Cardinalis cardinalis, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Catbird. (See Galeoscoptes carolincnsis.)
Cat 1 )riar. (See Smilax rotundifolia.)
Catlish, blue. (See Ichthselurus j^unciatus.)

Catostomus teres, enemy of periodical Cicada 139

< 'ecidomyiid, enemy of periodical Cicada. ..•..: 129

Cedar Inrd. (See Ampelis cedrorum.)

Chalcidids, parasites of periodical Cicada 131

Cheylctus sp., enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Chickadee, Carolina. (See Pcnthestcs carolincnsis.) I

Chipmunk. (See Tamias striatus.)

Cicada cassinii, a variety of periodical Cicada 20-22

= Tibicen septcndecim, var. cassinii 22

dog-day. (See Cicada tibicen.)

marginata, probably periodic 12

periodical, ''adobe dwellings." (Sec cones.)

adull . duration of stage 90-91

habits .' 99-102

advantages to species from long larval life 13

appearance regarded as ominous presage 1 17

appearances in future 34

as food for animals 103-104

man 102-104, 148

beak 79-81

175

176 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Page.

Cicada, periodical, bibliography 154-169

bird enemies 138-139

breeding record confirming 17-year period 114-116

Brood I — septendecim — 1910 38-39

II — septendecim — 1911 39-41

III — septendecim — 1912 41—42

IV — septendecim — 1913 42-43

V — septendecim — 1914 43—44

VI — septendecim — 1915 44—46

VII — septendecim — 1916 46—47

VIII — septendecim — 1917 47-49

IX — septendecim — 1918 49-50

X — septendecim — 1919 50-54

XI — septendecim — 1920 54-55

XII — septendecim — 1921 55-57

'Kill— septendecim— 1*^22 57-58

'XIY— septendecim— 1%2?, 58-60

KN— septendecim— l^OI 60-62

KNl— septendecim— 1^0% 62-63

KNll— septendecim— 1^0^ 63-64

XVIII— «rec?edm— 1919 65-66

XIX— ^re^/ecim— 1907 66-67

XX— irecfedm- 1908 68

XXI— irgcZecim— 1909 68-69

XXII— frerfedm— 1910 69-70

'XXlll—tredecim—l^ll 71-73

XXIV— /?-g^m??i— 1912 73-74

XXV— irec?mm— 1913 '. 74

XXVI— ir€c?6dm— 1914 74-75

XXVII— ^rerfedm— 1915 75

XXVIII— /rec?m*m— 1916 75

K'XlX.—tredecim—l^Vl 75-76

XXX— ^r(?(fmm— 1918 76-77

broods 22-34

classification 25-28

future appearances 34

of 14, 15, or 16 year periods 33

17-year race, range 38-64

13-year race, range 65-74

origin 22-25

range 38-77

relationship 28-30

sources, of error in old records 30-33

buiTowing ] 25-126

' ' chimneys. ' ' {See cones. )

chronology of Dr. Gideon B. Smith 170-173

climate in relation to races 18-20

cones 91-98

confusion with locust or grasshopper 11

damage by adults 11, 106-108

larva? and pupa^ 126

decimation, causes 13-14

description of stages 118-121

INDKX. 177

Cicada, jjcriodical, dipterous ciu'inics iL'il

distril)ui i(in ;! 1 77

local It!) 101

.sources ol infonuat ion :M :>.")

duraii(»n of axlult siau'c <»() !il

dwarf form L'O L'J

early recortls lie, i:,()

egti: parasiti's 1 :',() | :V2

eggs, descript ion II!

growth and haichin.Lr 110 112

insertion J0i)-1 10

retarded development ] 11

emergenc(\ acceleration artificially 90

method 91

period 88-90

food habits of adult *. ]01-102

larva and pupa 122-123

fungous disease 139-140

habits and characteristics, summary 11-14

of adult 99-102

larva and pupa 122-127

hemipterous enemies 130

history 14G-154

"huts.'^ (See cones.)

hymenopterous enemies 130

in literature 14G-154

insect parasites 129-138

larva, food habits 122-123

habits 122-127

newly hatched, actions and description 112

stages, descriptions 118-120

location of stages in soil 124-125

mite parasites of eggs 135-138

mouth parts 79-81

musical apparatus 82-84

natural enemies 127-140

numbers 99-100

oviposition, method 109-110

result to plant lOG-108

ovipositor 81-82

plants oviposited in 105

precautionary measures against injury 144-145

pupa, description 121

food habits 122-123

habits 122-127

races 14-20

range of l)roods 38-77

of seventeen-year race 38-64

thirteen-year race 05-77

species and the two races 3.V37

remedies and ])reventives 140-146

repellents 143-144

■ ■ roofs. ' ' (Sec cones. )

31117— No. 71—07 12

178 THE PERIODICAL CICADA.

Page.

Cicada, periodical, seventeen-year breeding record ] 14-116

l)roods, relationship 29-30

range 38-G4

race 14. 16-18

song notes 84-86

stages, description 118-121

history 1 16-118

location in .'^oil ] 24-125

sting, so-called 86-88

structural details 78-84

differences between the two races 1 7-18

superstitions 147

systematic position 77-78

thirteen-year broods, relationship 30

range 65-77

race. (See also Cicada irededm) 14-18

' 'towers. ' ' {See cones.)

transformation to adult 98-99

"turrets." (-See cones.)

underground life 112-121

experimental proofs 112-116

use in making soap 104

variety 20-22

'pruinosa= Cicada tibicen 78

septendecim. (See also Cicada, periodical, and Tibicen septendecim.)

considered by Walsh a species distinct from C. tredecim 17

= Tibicen septendecim 22

tibicen, Sphecius speciosus an enemy 132

tredecim. {See also Cicada, periodical, thirteen-year broods and race.)

considered by Walsh a species distinct from C. septendecim. . 17

= Tibicen septendecim, race tredecim 22

first publication of name 15-16. 153

Cicadas, yearly rccuiTence not necessarily indicative of life round limited to a

year 12

Climate, in relation to races of periodical Cicada 18-20

Coccyzus americanus, enemy of periodical Cicada 138-139

erythrophthalmiis, enemy of periodical Cicada 139

Colaptes auratus lutevs, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Corvus brachyrhyncJios, enemy of periodical Cicada 139

Cowbird. (See Molothriis ater.)

Crayfish, house-building habit 91

Crow. (See Corvus brachyrkynchos.)
Cuckoo, black-billed. (See Coccyzus crythrophthalmus.)
yellow-billed. (See Coccyzus americanus.)

Dcndroica cerulea, not found to eat periodical Cicada 139

Development, retardation in eggs of periodical Cicada Ill

Digger wasp, larger. {See Wasp, larger digger.)

Disease, periodical Cicada imagined cause 147

Distribution, of periodical Cicada 34-77. 99-lOJ

Dogs, enemies of periodical Cicachi 104

Dragon-flies, enemies of periodical Cicada 128

Dryobatcs pubescens mcdianus, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Evergreens, seldom oviposited in by periodical Cicada 105

l.NDKX. 179

Page.

Flicker. (See Colaptci^ aurahts luh ua. i
Flycatc-her. cn'sted. (^Soe Myiairhus crinilus.)

Fruit trees, injury to roots by jieriodieal Cicada I2(i

Fungous disease oi i)eriodical Cicada |:5!» 1 10

GahosropUs carolinensis, enemy of piTJodical ( 'i(a«Ia |;;,S

Gnatcati'her, l)lue-gray. (^See J*olioplila acrulca.)
Goklfmch, American. i^See As{ra<jal{)}us (rislis.)

Grape root-aphis, hisulphid of carbon a remedy I k;

Grapevines, injury through oviposition of periodical Cicada 107

Grosbeak, cardinal. (See Cardinalis cardinalis.)

Ground-l)eeiles, enemies of periodical Cicada 128

Hand collection, remedy for periodical Cicada 141-142

Har^-est fly. {See Cicada.)

UcImitJurns vermivorus, enemy of p(n-iodical Cicada L'58

Hickories, oviposition of periodical Cicada 105, 10()

Hogs, enemies of periodical Cicada 91, 103. 104. 1 28

Iloplophora sp. , enemy of periodical Cicada 1 :5()

Ilorizopus virens, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Hylocichla mustelina, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Ichthxlurus punctatus, enemy of periodical Cicada ]:]d

Icterus galbula, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

spurius, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Indigo bird. (See Passcrina cyanca.)

Iphis oralis, enemy of periodical Cicada ] 37

Kerosene emulsion, against periodical Cicada 142, 143

Laniiirco JJavifrons, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

l/athromeris cicadx, parasite of periodical Cicada 131-132

Lime-sulphur wash, possible value as repellent against periodical Cicada 144

washes, repellents against periodical Cicada 143-144

' 'Locust, seventeen-year," erroneous name for periodical or 17-year Cicada 11

Locusts, as articles of diet 102-103, 148

Maple, hard, injury through oviposition of periodical Cicada 107-108

Martin, purple. TSee Progne subis.)

Massospora cicadina, fungous disease of periodical Cicada 139-140

Melanerpcs erythrocephalus, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Merula migratoria, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Mesodon elevata, feeding on dead periodical Cicada 1")9

cxoleta, feeding on dead periodical Cicada 139

Micropteriis salmoides, enemy of periodical Cicada 1 39

Molothrus ater, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Myiarchus crinitus, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Mymarid, parasite of periodical Cicada 130

Xothrus orivorus, enemy of canker-worm \'-'>o

Xuthatch, white-bellie<l. (See Sitta carolijiensis.)

Oak, oviposition of periodical Cicada 100, 105, J()(;

Oppia pilosa, enemy of periodical Cicada 13()

Oribata aspidioti, enemy of scale insects 135

sp., enemy of periodical Cicada 13()

Oribatdla sp., enemy of periodical Cicada 130

Oribatid mites, enemies of periodical Cicada 130

Oribatnla sp., enemy of periodical Cicada J:^}0

Oripoda elongata, enemy of periodical Cicada 130

180 thp: periodical cicada.

Page.
Oriole, Baltimore. (See Icterus galbula.)

orchard. (See Icterus spurius.)
Passer domesticus. (See Sparrow, English.)

Passerma cyanea, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Peach, injury through oviposition of periodical < 'icada 107

Pear, food plant of periodical Cicada 1 02

injury through oviposition of periodical Cicada ] 07

to rooj;s hy periodical Cicada 126

Pedicidoidcs ventricosus, enemy of periodical Cicada 137

Penthestes carolinensis, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Periodical Cicada. (See Cicada, periodical.)
Pewee, wood. (See Horizovus vircns.)

Pipilo erythrophthalmus, enemy of periodical Cicada ] 38

Piranga crythromdas, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Polioptila cserulea, enemy of periodical Cicada ] 38

Poultry, enemies of periodical Cicada 104, 128, 148

Progne subis, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Pyrethrum, against periodical Cicada 142-143

Quiscalus quiscula seneus, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

enemy of periodical Cicada 115

Retarded development, in eggs of periodical Cicada Ill

Pobin. (See Merula migratoria.)

Scale insects, Orihata aspidioti an enemy 135

Schizoneura lanigera, injmy to fruit trees following oviposition of periodical

Cicada 108

Sciurus rufiventer, enemy of periodical Cicada 139

Seventeen-year Cicada. (See Cicada, periodical.)

locust, erroneous name for periodical or 17-year Cicada 11

Sitta carolinensis, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Smilax rotundifolia, oviposition of periodical Cicada attempted 105

Snails. (See Mesodon exoleta and M. elevata.)

Soldier-bugs, enemies of periodical Cicada 128

Sparrow, chipping. (See Spizdla socialis.)

English, enemy of periodical Cicada 13, 104, 128, 138

Sphedus spedosus. (See also Wasp, larger digger.)

enemy of Cicada tibicen 132

Stizus grandis a synonym 139

Spizella sodalis, enemy of periodical Cicada 138

Squirrel, fox. (See Sdurus rufiventer.)
ground. (See Tamias striatus.)

Squirrels, enemies of periodical Cicada 103. 104

Stizus grandis=Sphedus spedosus 139

Sucker, white. (See Catostomus teres.)

Supei-stitions, regarding periodical Cicada 147

Sweet gum, food plant of periodical Cicada 101

Tachina sp., parasite of periodical Cicada 128

Tamias striatus, enemy of periodical Cicada 139

Tanager, scarlet. (See Piranga crythromdas.)

Tetligonia septendedm, name of Fabricius for periodical Cicada 149

Thrasher, brown. (See Toxostoma rufum.)

Thrips, enemies of periodical Cicada 130

Thrush, wood. (See Ilylocichla mu^tclina.)

INDHX. 181

P»ige.

Tibicen crucntifcra A\u\ nllics. mistaken I'm- jxTiodical Cicada iJii. •15-4(>

rimosa, mistaken for T. sii)t<n<la-lin (;;{

septcndicim. (800 also Ctcmfa srjyU'iidcciin and Cicada, pciiiMlical. 1

correct name for periodical Cicada 2 J

race tnrlfcim, correci name fi>r l:-.-year race <»l" jxTiodical

Cicada 22

var. cassinii, correct name for ( 'icadd cas.nnii 22

Titmouse, tufted. (See Exolophus bicolor.)

Tobacco dust, against periodical Cicada 145

Towhee. (See Pipilo enjthrophthalmus.)

Toxostoma nij'um, enemy of pcM'iodical Cicada 138

Trichogrammid parasite of jxriodical Cicada 130-131

Tyro(ihjphus cocci philus, enemy of periodical Cicada 137

Vin'ot<yIva yilva, not found to eat periodical Cicada ] 3!)

Yireo, warbling. (See Viirosylva gilva.)

yellow-throated. (See Lanivireo ftavifrons.)
"Warbler, cerulean. (See Drndroka cerulca.)

worm-eating. (See Helmithcnis vennivorus.)

Wasp, larger digger, enemy of periodical Cicada 132-135, 13S

Woodpecker, downy. (See Dryobates pubescens medianus.)
red-headed. (See Melanerpes erythrocephalus.)